Reading in Latin. Topic I

Odessa, Ukraine, November 2006

INTRODUCTION

The history of the Latin language goes back more than one thousand years. The language changed over time, changing depending on the territory. " ... The Latin language penetrated into the conquered territories over a number of centuries, during which it itself, as a base language, was somewhat modified and entered into complex interaction with local tribal languages ​​and dialects.", page 12. The pronunciation also changed. It makes no sense to question whether any of them is correct. They are ALL correct.

There are only two main trends today - this is restored pronunciation - pronunciation of the 1st century. BC with its own, by the way simpler, reading rules, but in compliance with the number of syllables, etc. Sinaloifs - continuous reading of words, when the previous word ends with a vowel, and the next one begins with a vowel. Poems of the classical era practically do not require any special reading, compared to everyday speech. Latinists around the world at congresses dedicated to living Latin accepted this pronunciation as the basic one, since in slightly later eras the language began to differentiate along national or territorial grounds. The Lingua Latina Aeterna website is focused specifically on this pronunciation; this choice was made by the site’s creator, M.P. Polyashev. The following section is devoted to a description of this pronunciation.

The second trend is medieval Latin. The rules of reading have become simpler in a number of respects; on the contrary, they have become more complex in a number of respects. The duration of the syllable is not reproduced. Classical poetry must be read according to special rules, otherwise it simply does not sound. However, medieval poetry sounds great. It is this pronunciation that has been used by many millions of people for many centuries. Authors who used this particular pronunciation wrote many works. After all, this is the language of the church. The main problem with this pronunciation is the presence of many national schools that do not agree on details. For a description of the medieval pronunciation of the Russian school, see the Appendix.

Unfortunately, many excellent textbooks of the Russian school introduce confusion into the chronology of Latin phonetics. So in the section "Brief information from the history of the Latin language" in , pp. 10 - 11 it is declared that

The term “classical Latin” means a literary language that reached its greatest expressiveness and syntactic harmony in the prose works of Cicero (106 - 43 BC) and Caesar (100 - 44 BC) and in the poetic works of Virgil (70 - 19 BC), Horace (65 - 8 BC) and Ovid (43 BC - 18 AD). The Latin literary language of this particular period serves as the subject of study in our higher educational institutions.

The so-called Late Latin is distinguished as a separate period in the history of the Latin language, the chronological boundaries of which are the 3rd - 6th centuries...

My emphasis is Yu. Semenov.

And already on page 20 in the section "Phonetics" you can read the following

In the Latin language of the classical period c in all positions meant the sound [k]...

In Latin no earlier than the 4th - 5th centuries AD. There are cases of transition of the sound [k] into an affricate [ ts] before e And i; Much later, this phenomenon becomes widespread...

c: c before e, i, y, ae, oe reads like a Russian letter ts [ts]; in other cases (i.e. before a, o, u, before a consonant and at the end of a word) - like Russian To[k].

Personally, I see a serious contradiction in these two quotes from the same textbook. Meanwhile, this is one of the best textbooks of the Russian school.

Restored pronunciation

The description of the restored pronunciation is based on materials from the Schola Latina Universalis (SLU).

The main sources of information about the pronunciation of the classical era for its restoration are: methods of historical and comparative linguistics, surviving works of Latin grammarians, which often describe the articulation of Latin speech, the study of typical errors in written documents of different eras, the study of poetry of the classical era.
For more information about this, see.

Vowels

Latin has 6 vowels

a e i o u y

with the last letter found only in words borrowed from Greek, and 12 basic vowel sounds - 6 short and 6 long

a e i o u y

The duration of vowels is indicated by a horizontal line above the letter, in accordance with the traditions of the Russian school. It should be noted that SLU recommends a different longitude designation, which has its own advantages and disadvantages

Short vowels differ from long ones not only in duration, but also in timbre.

Vowel corresponding to Latin y neither in Russian nor in English. English people are advised to round their lips as to pronounce oo in goose, but to pronounce ee as in geese. Russians can be advised to pronounce and, fix the position of the tongue and round the lips, as with y. Or pronounce yu without the initial y.

In addition, Latin has 4 more nasal sounds that appear only in the last syllable ending in -m (so-called m caduca) if the next word begins with a vowel or h.

Am -em -im -um

In this case, -m is not pronounced and the vowel becomes nasal. If the next word begins with a consonant other than h, then -m is pronounced, but is likened to this consonant.

tam pulper[tam."pʊɫ.kɛɾ]
tam turpis[tan."tʊr.pɪs]
there castus[taŋ."kas.tʊs]

There are no words ending in -om or -ym in Latin.

Diphthongs

There are 6 diphthongs in Latin

ae oe au eu ej uj

The second vowel of a diphthong is pronounced very briefly, almost like a semivowel

If the pair of adjacent vowels listed does not form a diphthong, and each of them is pronounced separately, forming its own syllable, then a separation sign or a vowel duration sign is placed above one of the vowels, for example

a ër or a ēr

Consonants

There are 19 consonants in Latin

b c d f g h j k l m n p q r s t v x z

Let's consider the pronunciation of individual consonants and their combinations.

Doubled consonants are always pronounced doubled.

Among the consonant sounds there is the so-called. mute (closed), these are b, p, d, t, g, c and smooth l And r. Ancient grammars designated stops by the term muta, and smooth ones by liquida. The combination of silent and smooth is usually called muta cum liquida. Such combinations play an important role in syllable division.

2) Still, most likely the sound [d] from was similar to aspiration, in the sense that doubling sounded not like (such a combination is hard to pronounce!), but similar to the fact that the combination θθ was pronounced like tth. I thank M. Ledysheva for the discussion and idea.

Syllable division and number of syllables

Each vowel (or diphthong) of a word has its own syllable. The syllable division occurs:

• before the next vowel or diphthong
• before a single consonant
• before combinations of consonants ch, ph, th, qu, sometimes before gu or su
• before combinations muta cum liquida

If a syllable ends with a consonant, it is called closed, otherwise it is called open. An open syllable with a short vowel is short. All other syllables are long. A closed syllable with a short vowel is long “by position”.

Stress rules

As a rule, stress can fall on the last syllable only in monosyllabic words. There are several polysyllabic words with stress on the last syllable, for example: il- līc, Ar-pī- nās. These are exceptions and should be remembered separately.

The stress falls on the penultimate syllable if it is long.

In all other cases, the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Sinaloifa

Synaloepha - This is a continuous pronunciation of two words, characteristic of the Latin pronunciation of the classical era, the first of which ends with a vowel, and the next one begins with a vowel. The first vowel sound is pronounced, but becomes very short, almost turning into a semi-vowel. In this case, the number of syllables does not change. Sinaloifa is not an elision, since the vowels are not lost but become short, and it is not a diphthongization, since in diphthongization, not the first but the second vowel is pronounced as a semivowel.

APPLICATION

Medieval (school, church) pronunciation of the Russian school

The description of medieval pronunciation is based on materials from the textbook.

Vowels

Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels. In medieval Latin, the distinction between vowels by number was lost. In school Latin, the number of vowels is indicated when it is necessary to determine the form of the word and place stress. There are 6 monophthongs in Latin: a, e, i, o, u, y. The accents are placed in the same place as in classical Latin.

There are rules that make it possible to find out the brevity of monophthongs.

1. In words containing more than one syllable, any long vowel in a closed syllable was shortened before any final consonant, except s. In monosyllabic words, contraction occurred only before m And t.
2. Long vowel before combinations nt And nd was shrinking.
3. Short, as a rule, is the vowel before the vowel or h.

Diphthong au corresponds to the Russian monosyllabic [а́у] in the two-syllable word "pau-za".

An extremely rare diphthong eu corresponds to the Russian monosyllabic [eu].

Diphthongs ae And oe turned into monophthongs, depicted by two letters (digraphs). Digraph ae means sound [e], Russian [e]. Digraph oe read as German and French [ø:] or English [ə:]. If in graphic combinations ae And oe each vowel is pronounced separately, above e a trema or sign is placed indicating the number of vowels.

Consonants

In Russian educational practice, a double reading of the Latin letter has been established c: before e, i, y, ae, oe it reads like a Russian letter ts. In other cases - like a Russian To.

Combination ti reads like qi, however, in positions before the vowel in combinations sti, xti, tti reads like you.

l It is customary to pronounce it softly, as in German or French.

Combinations qu, gu, su are read as in classical Latin, but instead of the sound [w] it is customary to use Russian [v].

s between vowels it is pronounced as [z], and in other positions as [s].

Aspirates rh, th read as [p] and [t]. ch pronounced like X, ph- like [f].

LINKS and LITERATURE

1. Textbook of the Latin language, ed. V.N. Yarkho, M., Education, 1969.
2. W. Sidney Allen, Vox Latina, The Pronunciation of Classical Latin, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989
3. Schola Latina Universalis: Soni - detailed description of the restored pronunciation.
4. Vicipaedia: Pronuntiatio Latina - a brief description of the restored pronunciation.
5. Vicipaedia: Pronuntiatio Ecclesiastica - a brief description of church pronunciation.
6. Ostraca: La pronuncia del latino - a section of an interesting Italian site dedicated to Latin pronunciation.
7. Wikipedia: Latin pronunciation and spelling - article about Latin pronunciation in Russian.

• A a(A)*
• B b(b)
• C c- before “e”, “i”, “y”, “ae”, “oe” is pronounced (ts), in other cases - (k)

D d- (d)

• E e- (uh)*
• F f- (f)
• G g- (G)

H h- (X)

• I i- (And); (th) - before vowels.
• K k- (k) - rarely found in Greek borrowings.
• L l- (l)

Mm- (m)

• Nn- (n)
• O o- (O)
• P p- (P)

Q q- (To)

• R r- (R)
• Ss- (With); (h) - between vowels.
• T t- in the combination “ti” + vowel it is read (qi) + vowel, if there is no “s”, “t”, “x” before “ti”.

U u- (y)

• Vv- (V)
• X x- (ks)
• Y y- (and) - in Greek borrowings.

Z z- (h) - in Greek borrowings.

Diphthongs, pronunciation features:

• ae- (uh)
• oh- (yo [yo]) - something like that

ch- (X)

• ph- (f) - words of Greek origin.
• th- (t) - words of Greek origin.
• rh- (r) - words of Greek origin.

Latin alphabet in human history

Human civilization has already reached a high level, and we hardly think about where we got these or those things that we use every day; it seems that it has always been this way. Let's not talk about the latest technological progress now, let's think about more global things, such as language and writing. Every day on store signs, product packaging, and price tags on things, we come across inscriptions in foreign languages, most often English, which has rightfully won its international status. In the last decade, the prevalence of the English language has erased all boundaries; it has become vital for those who want to make a successful career. Even those who do not speak this language can easily read the names of popular brands, and all thanks to its incredible popularization. The Russian language uses the Cyrillic script for writing, and it is also used by some other Slavic peoples, such as the Bulgarians and Serbs. But more than half of European languages ​​use Latin alphabet . These simple Latin letters seem to have been with us for an eternity. But both language and writing are always the result of centuries of work by the people. It was the advent of writing that made it possible for ancient civilizations to leave memories to their descendants. Without writing, there would be no literature, and scientific and technological progress would be impossible. How did writing originate? What gave ancient people the idea of ​​how to record the necessary information? Nomadic tribes and warring parties had no need for writing. Their main task was to conquer a large territory for their tribe. But when the tribe began to lead a sedentary lifestyle, then the need for writing appeared. Probably, it was in one of these moments of calm that the ancient Phoenicians began to think about how to graphically display the necessary information. It was the Phoenicians who owned the first alphabet in human history, which became the progenitor of the Latin alphabet. It was the Phoenician alphabet that gave the traditional order of letters. Based on the Phoenician alphabet, the Greek alphabet developed, and it was in it that vowel letters appeared for the first time, which were borrowed from Semitic languages. For thousands of years, literacy was the privilege of the upper strata of society and the clergy; only a select few mastered this science. But it was the Ancient Greeks who were able to bring schools closer to the people, removing them from the influence of religious priests. And giving the opportunity to receive education from childhood. But Greek civilization fell under the onslaught of the Roman conquerors, who received the alphabet and writing as trophies. It was the Greek alphabet and writing system that formed the basis of Latin, the language of the Ancient Roman Empire. Over the millennia, the alphabet has been transformed, for example, initially there were 23 letters in the Latin alphabet, only in the Middle Ages, three more new letters were added (J, U and W), and the alphabet acquired such a familiar look. At the dawn of Latin writing, they wrote without separating words with spaces, and did not yet use punctuation marks. The belligerence of the Romans expanded the empire in all directions, in the end, even the north of Europe was conquered, and the Romans crossed the English Channel. Encampments of Roman legions are found in England, France, Syria and Judea, and even in Africa, near Tunisia and Algeria. The main base of the Roman Empire, of course, remained Italy. Many tribes that inhabited Europe at that time, in order to survive, tried to enter into an alliance with the Romans, such as the Germans and Goths. Such alliances were mostly long-term. Latin began to be used as a language of international communication. It was the emergence of Christianity, and its formation in Ancient Rome, that strengthened the position of Latin. Latin became the official language of the religion, which very quickly spread throughout Europe, displacing pagan cults. And when Christianity already became the official religion of Rome, the role of Latin strengthened, because now it is the official language of the church. And the role of the church in the political system in European countries cannot be underestimated. Latin is used for correspondence by diplomats and heads of state, it becomes the official language of science, and it is in Latin that the works of scientists and theological treatises are published. And the Renaissance, which swept like a fresh spring wind across Europe tormented by the Inquisition, also chose Latin as its language. The great Leonardo da Vinci, Isaac Newton, Galileo Galilei and Keppler wrote their works in Latin. In the spread of Latin writing, an important role was also played by the fact that many nations chose the Latin alphabet to write their native languages, so as not to invent new letters, but to use those already familiar to everyone. In its development, Latin writing went through many stages, the font was transformed, as architectural styles changed. In various historical periods, minuscule Roman italics and Roman capital letters, uncial letters and semi-uncial letters, Merovingian and Visigothic scripts, Old Italic letters and Gothic, rotunda and Swabian letters appeared. Many of these fonts are still used for decorative purposes. This is exactly how the evolution of writing took place, introducing new signs, styles, and methods of writing. The topic of the emergence of writing is very interesting and multifaceted; it is closely related to the development of human civilization with historical and cultural events. It is through the example of writing that one can establish a historical connection between seemingly completely different peoples. Transformation of primitive rock paintings, first into drawn symbols, and then into individual letters, which corresponded to a specific sound. The pinnacle of this process was the invention of printing. This allowed science and culture to develop at a new level.

Phonetics is one of the most difficult sections of the Latin language. Despite the fact that the pronunciation of sounds itself does not present any difficulties, it is worth keeping in mind that the Latin language is usually classified as a dead language, which means that unified natural modern phonetic norms simply do not exist.

In the development of phonetics, several stages can be roughly distinguished:

1. Ancient phonetics
2. Classical phonetics (restored ancient pronunciation)
3. Traditional phonetics (closer to the medieval period)
4. Modern phonetics

Each industry that studies or uses the Latin language selects and uses the variant that can best satisfy its basic needs. Basically, the structure of the Latin language developed quite early and was subsequently subject to only minor changes. Phonetics is an exception: various letters and letter combinations could radically change their sound, enter the language system or be excluded from it.

Let us consider in more detail the use of individual variants of Latin phonetics:

Ancient phonetics– Scattered knowledge about the pronunciation of individual sounds. At present, ancient phonetics has not developed into a full-fledged structure and is not used.

Classical phonetics– It is a restored ancient version of pronunciation and, therefore, knowledge of it is important when getting acquainted with the monuments of ancient literature (especially poetic works). It is studied, as a rule, in philological, legal and other humanities faculties.

Traditional (Eastern European) phonetics– It is a modified medieval version of Latin, at which time individual peoples were forced to communicate with each other in a Latin language alien to them, and during this period the pronunciation was transformed in two directions:

1. Even the literary version approached the vernacular (and vernacular Latin was something between Latin and the vernacular), the purpose of this transformation was to simplify the oral transmission of information in Latin.
2. The second goal of changing the Latin language in the medieval era was to simplify the listening comprehension of Latin; this direction was expressed in the fact that new sounds entered the phonetic system of the language, and existing ones became more differentiated.

This variant of Latin has a different scope: it is used in medicine, biology and other natural sciences. For medicine, it was the traditional phonetic norms that were chosen during the mandatory oral communication of medical workers in Latin, as easier to understand by ear.

Modern phonetics- Involves the pronunciation of Latin sounds in accordance with the norms of the speaker’s native language (for Europe), letters and letter combinations are read according to the norms of classical or traditional Latin.

Table No. 1. Comparative table of pronunciation options for letters and letter combinations in Latin

* Diphthongs ae, oe in the pre-classical era they were pronounced [ai], [oh]; in classical Latin - [ae], [oe] (with non-syllabic [e]). (Source: 1. Shabaga I.Yu. Grammatica Latina: Textbook (Latin language for translators) - M.: Moscow University Publishing House, 2009 - 184 p. - p. 16. 2. Deryugin A. A., Lukyanova L.M. Latin: Textbook - M.: Progress-Tradition; 2003 - 384 p.

Sounds

Short and long sound

According to their duration, vowel sounds in ancient Latin were divided into long and short. A long vowel sounded about 2 times longer than a short one. Over time, these norms were lost; now the definition of longitude or shortness is mainly used to set stress. When determining the length of a vowel, there are rules, in general they look like this:

1. The number of vowels is indicated in the dictionary.
   To denote a long sound, the sign (¯) - mora is used, to denote a short sound - (̆);
2. The vowel before the vowel or h is short;
3. Diphthongs (au, eu, ei, ui) and digraphs (ae, oe) are always long;
4. The vowel before a group of consonants or a double consonant is long. The exception is vowels before two consonant sounds, the first of which is plosive according to the method of formation (denoted by the letters “c”, “g”, “d”, “t”), and the second is a sonor (lateral sonor - [l] or tremulous sonor [r ]) or fricative (Denoted by the letter “s”). That is, before combinations of letters “dl”-“dr”, “tl”-“tr”, “cl”-“cr”, “gl”-“gr”, “x” ([ks]), “z” ( [dz]).
5. A vowel before one consonant is either long or short depending on its nature.
   For example:
   final [a] in the ablative singular of nouns of the 1st declension is long, in the endings of the present tense infinitive of the active voice 1, 2, 4, conjugations the vowel is long, and the 3rd conjugation is short.

Syllables

Open and closed syllable

An open syllable in Latin ends with a vowel, and a closed syllable ends with a consonant. However, some consonant combinations do not close the syllable (for example, the combination of the letters "b", "p", "d", "t", "g", "c" with "r" or "l"). At the same time, the letter "i"/"j" between vowels is read as a double [j] and closes the previous syllable. (See also “Dividing words into syllables” to determine the number and composition of syllables in a word.)

Long and short syllable

• An open syllable is long if it contains a long vowel and short if it contains a short one.
• A closed syllable is long.

Dividing words into syllables

To divide words into syllables, you should adhere to three rules.

1. The number of syllables in a word corresponds to the number of vowel sounds; diphthongs are counted as 1 sound.
2. The consonants with which a Latin word can begin belong to the next syllable (for example, “a”-“ni”-“mal”). This rule also applies to groups of letters, for example, the word “doctor” is divided into syllables as “doc”-“tor”, the variant “do”-“ctor” is incorrect, since there are no Latin words that begin with “ct”, if If such words existed, then the division would be carried out in exactly this way.
3. Compound words are divided into elements (“con”-“structio”).

Accent

Rules for placing stress

• The stress is never placed on the last syllable, naturally, except for monosyllabic words.
• The stress is placed on the 2nd syllable from the end if it is long and on the 3rd syllable from the end if the second one is short.

Accent in Latin

The stress itself in Latin was not always expressed in the same way. Initially, the stress was melodic: the stressed syllable was emphasized by the voice. Later it became expiratory - the stressed syllable is emphasized by the strength of the voice (more active exhalation), as in most modern European languages.

Phonetic laws of the Latin language

There are three main phonetic laws:

1. Consonant assimilation
2. Law of rotacism
3. Vowel reduction

Consonant assimilation

The assimilation of consonants in Latin is manifested in the fact that in combinations of consonants one is partially or completely similar to the other that follows it. This may manifest itself in the loss of voicing before a voiceless consonant.

• The front-lingual consonants [d], [t] before [s] are completely assimilated: “cedere” (step) – (cedsi) – (cetsi) – “cessi” (form of the 1st person singular perfect).
• The combination “ss” is simplified into “s”. Two “s” at the end of words are never used. “Esse” (to be) – (ess) – “es” (2nd person singular present tense).
• Voiced [g], [b] are deafened in front of deaf ones. This is recorded in the letter: “pingere” (to draw) – (pingsi) – (pincsi) – “pinxi” (1st person singular perfect form).
• Voiced [d] before “c”, “g”, “p”, “f”, “t”, “r”, “l” is usually completely assimilated. “Affigo” (attach) from “ad-figo”, “attribuo” (attach) from “ad-tribuo”.

Law of rotacism

Between 2 vowels, the sound [s] becomes [r].

This law was in effect until about the 4th century BC.

2 most striking examples:

1. All infinitives in the present tense end in – “re”, although they should have the ending – “se” (like the verb “esse”).
2. The verb itself “esse” and its change in the past tense (“eram”) and in the future (“ero”).

Reduction of short vowels

• In a closed final syllable, the short “o” becomes “u”. “Lupo” – “Lupus” (Wolf).
• All short vowels in the medial syllable become a short “i” unless followed by an “r”. “Teneo” (to hold) – “contineo” (to hold back).
  Before “r” in a medial open syllable, short vowels become “e”. “Dare” (give) – “tradere” (transfer).
  The short “i” in the middle syllable before the “r”, formed as a result of rhoticism, turns into “e”. “Capio” (take) – (capise) – “capere”.
• The final short “i” becomes “e” or disappears completely.

Latin is known as a "dead language" but is still studied and spoken. Not only will you increase your linguistic repertoire, but you will also be able to read classics in the original, easily learn romance languages, and expand your vocabulary. If you want to start exploring the source of so many languages, see step 1 below.

Steps

Basics

Get to know the alphabet. If you already speak English or any other language that uses the Latin alphabet, you can assume that you already know the alphabet. But languages ​​are constantly evolving and while most things are the same, there are a few differences.

• The letters J, V, and W were not used in classical Latin. The classical Latin alphabet had 23 letters.
• R conveys a rolling, quavering sound similar to [r] in Spanish.
• Y is called "Y" and Z is called "Z".
• I can sometimes be pronounced "zh" and Y is pronounced "i".
  • If you know the international notation, the letter I is sometimes pronounced /j/ and the letter Y is sometimes pronounced /y/. Do you know, why?
• U sometimes looks like W - that's where the letter comes from. It is written as "v".

1. Take up pronunciation. While Latin pronunciation doesn't have as many snags as English (usually each letter represents one sound...usually), a few things to keep in mind are vowel length and letter combinations.

   Find out where to put the emphasis. English has many words with Latin roots and therefore similar stress patterns. However, it would be inappropriate to talk about 100% coincidence. For Latin, keep these rules in mind:

   • In monosyllabic words, stress is not a problem.
   • In words consisting of two syllables, the stress falls on the first syllable (pos-co: I demand)
   • In polysyllabic words, the stress falls on the penultimate syllable if it contains a long vowel (menti un tur: they lie).
   • In polysyllabic words that have a short vowel or a short syllable in the penultimate syllable, the stress falls on the third syllable from the end (im pe"rator: commander).
     • All these rules are similar to the rules in modern English. In fact, in English, for a long time, Latin rules were considered "correct", and this changed the Germanic roots. It's the same reason your English teacher tells you not to split infinitives (did you get it?). This is due to the influence of the Latin language.

2. Know what to expect. As you can already feel, Latin is a very difficult language. You are at the beginning of a long, difficult journey. Here's one example: There are a few things to consider when using verbs, right? Maybe a number, gender? No. Much more. You can handle it, right? Need to know:

   • Three persons - first, second and third
   • Two types - perfect (finished) and imperfect (unfinished)
   • Two numbers - singular and plural
   • Three moods - indicative, subjunctive and imperative
   • The six tense forms are Present tense (praesens), Past imperfect tense (imperfectum), Past perfect tense (perfectum), Plusquamperfect or prepast (plusquamperfectum), Future tense or future first (futurum primum) and Future tense or future second (futurum). secundum)
   • Two voices - active and passive.
   • Four verbal forms - infinitive, gerund, participle and supine
     • We have not yet mentioned 7 cases and 3 genders

   Nouns, verbs, etc.

   1. Use your current knowledge. So you've gotten a sense of the complexity of your endeavor, which you want to begin right now - after all, it's a language that certainly has a lot to understand. But if you speak any Romance language, and even English, you have an advantage, at least in terms of vocabulary.

      Know how verbs change. Latin is an inflected language, in which, by definition, words are highly inflected. If you have experience with European languages, this will not be a surprise to you. Although Latin will give Spanish, French and German a head start in terms of complexity.

      Learn the declination. This fancy term refers to the modification of nouns (as well as pronouns and adjectives). Latin has five declensions. It's similar to verb conjugation - each noun belongs to a specific group and its endings follow the declension pattern of that particular group.

      Learn the cases. There are seven cases (five main ones), the same endings are often used in several cases. Not an easy task, isn't it? As you study cases, you will find that they are often shortened to the first three letters.

   2. Forget about word order. Since English has no conjugation or declension, word order is absolutely essential. But in Latin, for example, the sentence “A boy loves a girl” does not have to be written “Puer amat puellam,” which literally translates to “A boy (puer) loves (amat) a girl (puellam).” Actually, "Puellam amat puer" means the same thing - it's all about the endings.

      • You might think that the second example translates to “A girl loves a boy,” but this is not the case. “A girl loves a boy” would be “Puella amat puerum.” Look how the endings are reversed. That's the beauty of cases!
        • In fact, in Latin, verbs usually come at the end of sentences. You should not form a sentence according to the English sentence model (subject-predicate-object), although it may be tempting to do so, since word order does not matter. "Puer puellam amat" is an authentic Latin phrase.

   Self-study

   1. Use language immersion software."Rosetta Stone" and "Transparent" are two programs that allow you to learn Latin among other available languages. Transparent also has some Latin words and phrases that you can listen to for free.

      • This is by far the easiest way to start learning a language. You can do this in your free time at your own pace. It's best to practice a little every day (and you can do this at home!) to ensure you're getting the hang of the material.

   2. Read books in Latin. Look at the library or bookstore for books that will help you learn to speak Latin. You may be able to find a Latin dictionary or books on Latin grammar.

      • As an additional resource, be sure to check out the Internet. There are hundreds of websites that can help you start learning a language. Although no one speaks Latin perfectly, there are many people who want to breathe life into this ancient language.

   3. Read Latin literature aloud. Ancient philosophers such as Virgil and Cicero wrote in Latin. During medieval times, Latin was also widely used in educational, legal and religious fields. How great it would be to read classics in the original language!

      • When you do this, don't look up every word in the dictionary. This makes reading too slow. Make it a point to understand the plot as a whole and only use a dictionary if you're really stumped.

   Studying with like-minded people

   1. Study Latin at school. If the language is taught at your institution, that's fantastic. Make arrangements with your university's humanities or history department professors to attend Latin classes.

      • In addition to Latin classes, you can take classes in English lexicology and etymology, classical literature, and the history of European languages.

   2. Hire a Latin tutor. Try placing a print ad in local study centers and libraries. Maybe some advanced Latin student or teacher is willing to teach you how to speak Latin.

      • Try to find someone with teaching experience. Just because someone can speak a language does not mean they can teach it. If you are a student, ask your professors if they know anyone who can help you.

Notes: 1). Letters k, y,z were used only in borrowings from Greek. 2). Letter J, j(iota) was introduced in the 18th century to convey the sound [th], before which the letter i was used to convey this sound before vowels. Some textbooks and dictionaries adhere to this tradition and do not introduce the letter, i.e. There are two possible spellings, for example:

justus, iustus (justus) - fair

jam,iam (yam) - already

3). Letter U, u was also introduced in the 18th century, before that u And v did not differ. In Roman inscriptions it is used only v. Before vowels v usually read as [v], in other cases as [y].

Basic reading rules

All letters in the word are readable. There are no "silent" vowels. Most letters are always read the same way and exactly as they are called. Unstressed vowels are pronounced as clearly as stressed vowels. Rule 1. Letter With reads in two ways: as [ts] and as [k]. Before the vowels e, i, y and the combinations ae [e] and oe [ö], it is read as [ts], in other cases - as [k].

civis [civis] - citizen centum [centum] - one hundred

Cyprus[Ciprus] - Cypruscorpus[corpus] -body

cuprum[cuprum] – coppernunc[nunc] – now, now

Caesar [Caesar] - Caesar casus [incident] - case

credo [credo] – I believe, I believe

Exercise: read the words.cor(heart)

lac(milk)

vacca(cow)

clarus (light, famous)

medicina(medicine)

cito (quickly) accuso (accuse)

caelum(sky)

decem(ten)

Rule 2. Combination ti before vowels it is read as [qi].ratio [ration] - mind

initium [initium] – beginning.

Combination ti and before a vowel it is read as [ti], if it comes after st, x: bestia [bestia] - beast, mixtio [mixtio] - mixture.

Exercise: Read the words.

revolutio(coup)

administration

amicitia (friendship)

sentiunt(feel)

Horatius, Terentius (Roman names)

Rule 3. Letter Q, q(ku) is found only in the combination qu, which is read as [kv].

aqua [aqua] - water

qui [qui] - which

antiquus [antiquus] – ancient

Exercise: Read the words.

quinque(five)

quarta(quarter)

qualis(what)

quasi (as if, almost)

Rule 4. Before vowels combination gu read [gv]

lingua[lingua] - language

Combination su read [sv]

suavis [svavis] - pleasant

Rule 5. Combination ae reads like [uh]

aetas[ethas] - age, century

Graecia[greecia] - Greece

Letter With before ae is read as [ts]

Caesar[Caesar]-Caesar

Exercise: Read the words.

caerimonia (sacred act) quaestio (interrogation, investigation)

caecus (blind) praesens (present tense) aeger (sick) laetitia (joy)

Note: if over With in combination ae there is some symbol (аë, аē), then the two sounds are read separately: аеr [aer] - air

Rule 6. Combination oh reads like German ö, French [œ] and approximately like the Russian letter e after a consonant:

poena [foam] - punishment.

Exercise: read the words:

proelium (battle), foedus (alliance).

Note: if there is some sign above e (оē, оë), then the two sounds are read separately: poēta [poeta] - poet.

Rule 7. In words borrowed from Greek, there are combinations:

ch- [x]:schola [schola] - school; charta [harta] - paper

ph- [f]:philosophia [philosophia] - philosophy

th - [t]: theatrum [te'atrum] - theater

rh- [p]:rhetor [r`etor] – speaker

Exercise: read the words

pulcher(beautiful)elephantus(elephant)

symphonia (consonance) theologia (theology)

thesis(statement)Rhenus(Rhine)

rhythmus(rhythm)

Rule 8. There were diphthongs in Latin Au, eu, i.e. two vowel sounds were pronounced in one syllable. We pronounce them as a normal combination of two vowels, but the second element is never stressed:

aururn[`aurum] -gold

Europa [Eur'opa] - Europe

Exercise: read the words

nauta (sailor), audio (listening), Euclides (Euclides).

Rule 9. Letter s between vowels is read as [z]:

rosa [rose] - rose hip, causa [k`auza] - reason, deed.

Note. In words borrowed from Greek, this rule does not apply: philosophia- [philosophia].

Rule 10. Letter L It is customary to read softly [l]:

schola [schola], although [schola] is also acceptable;

lux [lux] - light, shine.

Accent

Rule 1A. In Latin the accent is never will not fall on the last syllable.

Exercise: Read the words, paying attention to the stress.

amor (love), caput (head), color (color), carmen (song), credit (believes), audit (listens), terror (fear), docent (teach), student (study), mutant (change), major (larger, older), minor (smaller, junior)

Rule 1B. Stress in Latin can fall only to the penultimate syllable or to the third from the end (i.e. pre-penultimate). Stress depends on the length or shortness of the penultimate vowel. If the penultimate vowel is long, then the stress falls on it; if it is short, the stress falls on the third syllable from the end. We pronounce Latin words without distinguishing between long and short vowels. But according to some rules, it is possible to restore the length or shortness of a vowel.

Rule 2. A vowel that comes before another vowel is always short. If the penultimate vowel is short, then it is unstressed, therefore, the stress shifts to the third syllable from the end.

For example, ratio [р`аціо]: stands before o, therefore, it is short and cannot be stressed, so the stress falls on the third syllable from the end; janua [й'анUA] - door: stands before a vowel and, therefore, it is short and unstressed.

Exercise: Read the words, paying attention to the emphasis.

initium (beginning), audio (listen), quattuor (four), sapiens (wise, intelligent), aureus (golden), linea (line, line).

Rule 3. If a vowel is followed by two or more consonants, then the vowel is long: libertas [lib'ertas] - freedom, because After the penultimate vowel e there are two consonants in a row (rt), then the vowel is long and, therefore, stressed.

Exercise: Read the words, paying attention to the stress.

juventus (youth), honorestus (honest), magister (teacher), puella (girl), theatrum (theater), ornamenrum (decoration).

Rule 4. In those words for which rules 2 and 3 do not apply, longitude and brevity are usually indicated. Long vowels are indicated by a straight line above (ā, ī, ē, ō, ū); diphthongs aui and eu, as well as sounds denoted by the combinations ae - [e] and oe - [e] are always long. Short vowels are indicated by a ˇ symbol at the top: (ǎ, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ). In some textbooks and dictionaries, only brevity is indicated (less often, only longitude).

Exercise: read the words

amīcus (friend) medicus (doctor)

corōna(wreath)littĕra(letter)

disciplina (teaching) veritas (truth)

civīlis (civilian) popŭlus (people)

audīre. (listen)domīnus (master)

humānus (human) ocŭlus (eye)

EXERCISE

1. Read and transcribe the words /in Russian letters in square brackets with emphasis/:

Civis, circus, amīca, tunĭca, color, caput, civĭtas, civīlis, oceănus, cursus, Cyclŏps, centum, causa, nunc, lac, sic, occĭdo, ocсasio, necessĭtas, necessarius, accentus, vaccīna, caelum, delictum, inimīcus, Cicĕro, Graecus, cylindrus, corōna, medicus.

2. Read the words, giving the transcription in Russian letters:

Discipŭlus,Juppĭter,domĭnus,justitia,injuria,labor,laurus,ocŭlus,bestia,quaestio,negotium,arbĭter,sphaera,aetas,aequus,praesens,quercus,antiquĭtas,furor,tabŭla,triumphus,monumentum,ornamentum,mystĭcus,Romānus, chimaera,Bacchus,urbs,haud,quamquam,quidquid,unguis,ignis,quinque,unguentum,agricŏla,poena,aurōra,caelicŏla,aes,proelium,aura,auris,ratio,amicitia,popŭlus,levis,dexter,oboedientia,poēta, bacŭlus,beātus,laetitia,consuetūdo,causa,ianua,iambus,coeptum,thesaurus,caecus,pinguis.

3. Read and transcribe the proverbs:

Scientiapotentiaest. Knowledge (is) power.

Repetitio est mater studiōrum. Repetition (is) the mother of learning.

Omneinitiumdifficile.

Every beginning is difficult.

Aquilanoncaptatmuscas. The eagle doesn't catch flies.

Malaherbacitocrescit. Bad grass grows quickly.

Nihilhabeo,nihiltimeo. I have nothing, I’m not afraid of anything.

Quodnocet, docet. What harms, teaches.

Philosophiaestmagistravitae. Philosophy is the teacher of life.

Roma, Carthāgo, Cyprus, Corinthus, Athenae, Aegyptus, Caucăsus, Scythia, Thermopylae, Rhenus, Ephesus, Syracūsae, Lutetia, Assyria, Libia, Rhodos, Sicilia, Chersonēsus, Tanais, Troia, Thebae.

5. Read and transcribe the names, translate them into Russian:

Gaius Iulius Caesar, Marcus Tullius Cicĕro, Titus Livius, Publius Cornelius Tacĭtus,

Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Portius Cato Major, Lucius Annaeus Senĕca, Publius Ovidius Naso, Tiberius Gracchus, Augustus, Xerxes, Aesōpus, Anaxagŏras, Demosthĕnes, Prometheus, Aristophănes, Socrătes, Aristotĕles, Xenŏphon, Pyrrhus, Pythagŏras.

(If a Latin name ends in –ius, then in Russian it ends in

Iy: Valerius-Valery; if on -us, without a preceding i, then the ending is discarded: Marcus-Mark).

6. Find in previous tasks the words from which the famous

you words of Russian, English, French and other languages ​​known to you.