Problems associated with modernization in Africa, Asia and Latin America have remained central since liberation from colonial rule to the present day. These states are striving to increase their importance in global trade and economy, but due to various factors, they face significant difficulties in this process.
The main problems of modernization remain internal contradictions in the general approach to economic and social development, the low level of education of the population, as well as the intensification of ethno-social conflicts.
Modernization in the post-colonial period
After liberation from the rule of the metropolises, many states in Africa and Asia were waiting for the so-called “economic miracle”. It should be noted that many countries have managed to achieve certain successes in industrial production and trade. In the 60-70s, the level of growth in industrial production was 2 times higher than in developed countries. Trends in strengthening the state economy were also observed in Latin American countries.
However, behind such achievements there was a significant inconsistency, which subsequently led to a series of severe economic crises. In states that have the ability to produce oil, active social transformations have begun to be introduced.
Due to the high cost of oil, England and the United States began to actively provide loans for the development of these states. In the mid-70s, the cost of oil products began to fall rapidly - the states of the Persian and Caribbean Gulf found themselves in an economic trap. More than 90% of the population found themselves below the poverty line.
A significant difficulty in modernization was the lack of specialized personnel. The vast majority of the population of Africa, Asia and Latin America did not even have a primary education. The uneducated population provided cheap labor, but production began to require the introduction of scientific and technical developments, for which trained specialists were needed.
Problems of modernization in the 90s
The variable success that could be seen in the modernization of countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America in the 60-80s was completely supplanted by the socio-economic crises that began in the 90s. The rapid end of the Cold War played a significant role in this. The interest of world leaders in developing “non-Western” states has disappeared, and along with this their funding has also ceased.
Since 1989, the United States and European countries, including the USSR, began to demand from developing countries the immediate repayment of debts that were provided to them in the 70s. In many countries, more than a third of national income was spent on repaying loans. Even in countries such as Saudi Arabia, which previously had no problems with modernization, the level of production, due to a lack of capital, fell to 1965 levels.
Countries such as Iraq, Kuwait, India, Brazil, Argentina were thrown back to 1950 levels. The poorest countries in Asia and Africa are facing the threat of famine. The greatest problems were observed in the economy of the so-called “economic dependents” - states in which industrial development was carried out at the expense of the USA and the USSR.
More serious preconditions for modernization existed in Latin American countries. Colonial dependence on Spain and Portugal was eliminated there at the beginning of the 19th century. After the War of Independence (1816), Argentina was liberated, Mexico in 1821, Peru in 1824, Brazil also gained independence in 1822, although until 1889 it remained a monarchy under the rule of its son, and then grandson of the King of Portugal.
In 1823, the United States adopted the Monroe Doctrine, which declared the inadmissibility of interference by European powers in the affairs of American states. Thanks to this, the danger of a second colonial conquest of Latin America disappeared. The United States, which had a vast and not yet fully developed territory, limited itself to annexing part of the territory of Mexico and establishing control over the Panama Canal zone, which previously belonged to Colombia.
By the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the influx of capital from the USA, partly from England, a developed network of railways was created in many Latin American countries. Only in Cuba its length turned out to be greater than in all of China. Oil production grew rapidly in Mexico and Venezuela. Mining developed in Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, although the overall agricultural orientation of the economy predominated.
A characteristic feature of Latin America was the existence of large landowner farms - latifundia, which produced coffee, sugar, rubber, leather, etc. for the markets of developed countries. Local industry was poorly developed; basic needs for industrial goods were met by importing them from industrialized countries. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, in a number of Latin American countries (Argentina, Chile), the trade union movement had already developed and political parties had emerged.
Traditionalism in Latin America had a specific character. The historical memory of traditions in the states of pre-Columbian civilization, destroyed by European colonialists back in the 16th century, was preserved only in certain inaccessible areas. The majority of the population were professing the Catholic religion, descendants of children from mixed marriages of the indigenous population, Indians, immigrants from European countries, and slaves taken from Africa (mestizo, mulatto, creole). Only in Argentina were immigrants from European countries numerically predominant.
A stable tradition that has developed since the wars of independence has been the special role of the army in political life. The existence of dictatorial regimes that relied on the army met the interests primarily of the landowners-latifundists. They were faced with protests from plantation workers against low wages and harsh conditions, and the use of non-economic, feudal methods of forced labor by the latifundists.
Planters and the military most often showed disinterest in any changes. Dissatisfaction with the agrarian and raw materials orientation of Latin American countries on the world market was demonstrated primarily by the national trade and industrial bourgeoisie, which was strengthening its position.
A symbol of the coming changes in Latin America was the Mexican revolution of 1910-1917, in which the war of the landless peasantry against the latifundists was supported by the bourgeoisie with its desire to establish democracy. Despite the US military intervention in events in Mexico, the result of the revolution was the adoption of a compromise democratic constitution in 1917, which established a republican system in Mexico. It remained, unlike other Latin American countries, unchanged throughout the 20th century.
DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS
From a note from the US government to the British government regarding the "open door" policy in China, September 22, 1899:
“It is the sincere desire of my Government that the interests of its citizens within their respective spheres of interest in China shall not be prejudiced by the exceptional measures of any of the controlling Powers. My Government hopes to maintain in them an open market for the commerce of the whole world,
to remove dangerous sources of international irritation and thereby hasten the united action of the powers in Peking to carry out the administrative reforms so urgently needed to strengthen the Imperial Government and preserve the integrity of China, in which, in his opinion, the entire Western world was equally interested. It believes that the achievement of this result can be greatly promoted and secured by declarations of the various powers claiming spheres of interest in China<...>the following essentially:
- 1) that it will not in any way affect the rights of treaty ports or legitimate interests within the so-called sphere of interests or leased territory that it may have in China;
- 2) that the current Chinese treaty tariff will be applied equally in all ports located within the said area of interest (except free ports), to all goods, regardless of nationality. That the duties so collected shall be collected by the Chinese Government;
- 3) that in ports within its sphere it will levy no higher port dues on ships of other nationalities than on ships of its own, and that on railways built, controlled or operated within its sphere no higher port dues will be imposed. higher tariff rates on goods belonging to subjects or citizens of other nationalities than those levied on like goods belonging to the own citizens of that power and transported over equal distances.”
From a revolutionary leaflet by the Yihetuan during the uprising in Northern China (1900):
“Foreign devils have come with their teachings, and the number of Christian converts, Roman Catholics and Protestants, is increasing every day. These churches have no family ties with our teaching, but, thanks to their cunning, they attracted to their side all the greedy and selfish, and committed oppression on an extraordinary scale, until every honest official was bribed and became their slave in the hope of foreign wealth. This is how telegraphs and railways were founded, foreign rifles and cannons began to be manufactured, and various workshops served as a delight for their spoiled nature. Foreign devils find locomotives, balloons and electric lamps excellent. Although they ride on stretchers that do not correspond to their rank, China still considers them barbarians whom God condemns and sends spirits and geniuses to earth to exterminate them.”
From the final protocol between China and foreign powers in connection with the suppression of the Yihetuan rebellion, September 7, 1901:
“Article 5. China has agreed to prohibit the import into its possessions of weapons and ammunition, as well as material intended exclusively for the production of weapons and ammunition. By imperial decree of August 25, 1901, it was decided to prohibit such imports for two years. New decrees may be issued subsequently to extend this period every two years, in case the powers find it necessary. Article 6. By Imperial Decree of May 22, 1901, His Majesty the Emperor of China undertook to pay the powers a reward of four hundred and fifty million Haiguan lan (taels)<...>This amount will yield 4% per annum, and the capital will be paid by China in 39 years<...>
Article 7. The Chinese government has agreed to consider the quarter occupied by the missions as specially designated for their use and placed under the protection of their own police;
in this quarter the Chinese will not have the right to settle<...>Article 8. The Chinese government has agreed to demolish the forts at Ta-ku, as well as those that could interfere with free communication between Beijing and the sea. In pursuance of this, measures were taken. Article 10. The Chinese government has undertaken to print and promulgate the following imperial decrees within two years in all cities of the provinces:
- a) decree of February 1, 1901, prohibiting, under penalty of death, from belonging to an anti-European party;
- b) decrees of February 13 and 21, April 29 and August 19, 1901, containing a list of punishments to which the guilty were sentenced<...>
- e) a decree of February 1, 1901, by which it is declared that all governors-general, governors and provincial or local officials are responsible for the order in their districts and that in the event of new anti-European riots or other violations of the treaties that are not immediately suppressed and for If the perpetrators have not been punished, these officials will be immediately dismissed without the right to assume new positions and receive new honors.”
From the work of D. Nehru “A View of World History.” 1981. T. 1. P.472,475,476:
“One of the goals that British policy in India consistently strived for was the creation of a propertied class, which, being a creature of the British, would depend on them and serve as their support in India. The British therefore strengthened the position of the feudal princes and created a class of large zamindars and talukdars and even encouraged social conservatism on the pretext of non-interference in religious affairs. All these propertied classes were themselves interested in exploiting the country and in general could only exist thanks to such exploitation<...>A middle class has gradually emerged in India, which has accumulated some capital to invest in business<...>The only class whose voice was heard was the new middle class; the brainchild, actually born from a connection with England, began to criticize her. This class grew, and with it the national movement grew."
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
- 1. Explain how you understand the term “traditionalism”.
- 2. Describe the changes that occurred in colonies and dependent countries as a result of the creation of colonial empires.
- 3. There is an assertion that colonialism brought more positive changes to the countries of Asia and Africa than negative ones. Think about and justify your point of view on this statement.
- 4. Give examples of mass anti-colonial protests: what was their common feature, what distinguished them in terms of goals, direction, and means of struggle?
- 5. Using examples from the history of Japan, China, India and other countries, reveal the features and consequences of modernization attempts in colonial and dependent countries. Explain your understanding of the words “spontaneous traditionalism of the masses.”
- 6. Name the characteristic features of modernization in Latin American countries.
Executive editor L.N. Simonova
The collective monograph examines the processes of economic modernization in Latin America, including the macroeconomic, structural, technological and institutional changes that have occurred in the region over the past two decades. The paper presents an analysis of the main directions of the modernization policy of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Peru and Chile, which have different economic, scientific and technical potentials.
The main emphasis in analyzing the directions of modernization practice of Latin American states is on the innovation component, which is one of the defining elements in the strategy of increasing competitiveness and accelerating the socio-economic development of the leading countries of the region. The work reflects the results of institutional reforms aimed at strengthening the national innovation system and increasing the efficiency of scientific research and development.
Particular attention is paid to identifying the problems and contradictions that Latin American countries face on the way to building an innovative economy.
Introduction
Chapter 1. Stages of economic modernization in Latin American countries
Chapter 2. Argentina. In search of economic stability
2.1. Light and shadows of modernization policy
2.2. Pivoting towards a knowledge economy
2.3. Level and trends of development of innovative economy
Chapter 3. Innovative aspects of Brazil's macroeconomic strategy
3.1. Brazilian Economic Modernization Project
3.2. Economic reforms 2003-2010
3.3. Successes and difficulties of industrial and scientific-technical development
3.4. New priorities of modernization policy
Chapter 4. Mexico. Associative model of modernization
4.1. Macroeconomic policy in the context of liberalization
4.2. Features of the innovative trajectory of modernization
4.3. Imperatives of forming a national innovation system
Chapter 5. Colombia. A leap into the information economy?
5.1. The formation of competitiveness policy as the basis for modernization
5.2. Strategy for scientific and technological development
5.3. Achievements and prospects for economic transformation
Chapter 6. Peruvian model of “catch-up” development
6.1. Problems of “catch-up” modernization
6.2. Modernization and structural imbalances
6.3. The role of the scientific and technological complex in economic policy
Chapter 7. Chile. Export-oriented development model
7.1. Priorities of the modernization strategy
7.2. Innovations in the public policy system
7.3. Potential and limits of the export-oriented model
Conclusion
Statistical Application
List of accepted abbreviations
Transcript
1 Ways of modernization of Latin American countries 1. General features and features of the development of Latin American countries 2. Post-war years 3. National reformism 4. Cuban revolution 5. Chile in 6. Latin American countries in
2 1. General features and features of the development of Latin American countries In the mid-20th century. Latin American countries differed significantly from each other in terms of the level of economic and social development. The greatest progress in industrial development was achieved by: - Argentina - Uruguay - Chile - Brazil - Mexico
3 Here: - large industry developed - a large working class grew - Capitalist relations penetrated into agriculture Mexico
4 In countries such as Peru and Ecuador there was a mining and manufacturing industry. Agriculture played a significant role, where patriarchal remnants persisted
5 The most backward countries Paraguay, Haiti
6 These were agricultural countries with patriarchal relations. The majority of the population lived in lawlessness and poverty.
7 According to the prevailing political regimes, the countries of the region were also divided into groups: - With stable constitutional regimes (Mexico, Colombia, Uruguay, Costa Rica)
8 - Another group where dictatorial regimes dominated for a long time: Paraguay, Haiti, Guatemala
9 Between these poles there was a large group of states in which there was a periodic change of democratic and authoritarian, civil and military governments. These included Argentina, Brazil
10 In many countries, contradictions have remained: - Between industrial development and the traditional way of life that dominated the landowners' latifundia - Between the oligarchic power of large landowners and entrepreneurs and the powerless position of the mass of the population - Between the republican, constitutional system and the policies of individual rulers
11 External problems: - Dependence of the economy on foreign monopolies - Military and political pressure - Direct US intervention
12 In this situation, the army often took on the role of the leading political force. Revolutions and reforms were used to solve problems
13 2. Post-war years The Second World War gave rise to new processes in Latin American countries In the economy, this was expressed in “import-substituting industrialization” (development of domestic production) New industries emerged in a number of countries: metallurgical, oil refining, chemical
14 During industrialization, the position of the state in the economy strengthened. In Mexico and Brazil, the state accounted for about a third of all capital investments in the economy. In the first post-war years, the democratization of political life took place. This was facilitated by the international situation
15 In a number of countries, dictatorial regimes were ended and democratic freedoms were restored. But already in the years. There was a shift to the right. Military dictatorial regimes were established in Peru, Venezuela, Panama, Bolivia, Cuba, and Paraguay.
16 After the overthrow of the Military dictatorship in 1944, a government led by the liberal figure J.H. Arevalo came to power in the country. He received about 85% of the votes. The government that came to power embarked on the path of progressive reforms Guatemala:
17 For the first time in the history of Guatemala, the following was issued: - a labor law limiting the freedom of activity of North American firms - a Social Security Law (workers received the right to organize into trade unions and go on strike)
18 A bourgeois-democratic constitution was adopted, agrarian reform. It gave the peasants hope that the land owned by foreign companies and local landowners would be transferred to those who cultivate it. However, five years have passed since the adoption of the constitution, and more than 40% of all cultivated land in the country belonged to 163 large landowners. The rest of the land continued to remain in the hands of North Americans
19 Juan Arevalo pursued the line of development of programs for education, health care, and road construction. He proclaimed freedom of speech and press. Thanks to the labor law, the communists gained control over trade unions, and in 1948 a number of large workers’ strikes occurred
20 In 1951, the revolutionary democrat J. Arbenz became the President of Guatemala. This was the first peaceful democratic transfer of power in Guatemala. He began to pursue a foreign and domestic policy independent from the United States. But in 1954, power passed into the hands of the military junta
21 3. National reformism All changes in Latin American countries contributed to the strengthening of patriotic sentiments. One of these concepts was put forward by Juan Domingo Peron, President of Argentina in the years. Juan Domingo Peron
22 Peron's economic program placed greater emphasis on Argentine industrialization and self-determination Peron called on Argentines to unite to eliminate the country's dependence and backwardness Railways and a number of enterprises were nationalized A five-year economic development plan was adopted Increased workers' wages At the same time, labor activists were persecuted His party was overthrown in a military coup in 1955, leading to Perón's exile in Spain
23 4. Cuban Revolution As a result of the coup d'etat on March 10, 1952, Fulgencio Batista came to power in Cuba and established a military-police dictatorship in the country
24 The coup caused discontent among progressive-minded youth, the most radical group of which was led by a young lawyer and aspiring politician Fidel Castro.
On July 25, 26, 1953, a group of rebels, counting on the support of the broad masses, led by Fidel Castro, stormed the fortified Moncada barracks in Santiago de Cuba. After a two-hour battle, the rebel detachment was defeated, many revolutionaries were killed, the rest were put on trial by Fidel Castro
26 Under public pressure, Batista soon had to grant amnesty to the rebels. The Castro brothers emigrated to Mexico, where they did not abandon plans to overthrow the Batista dictatorship and began to create an organization for a future revolutionary uprising.
27 On December 2, 1956, a rebel detachment of 82 people landed from the yacht Granma in the province of Oriente. In addition to the landing, the revolutionaries planned to organize a revolt in Cuba itself, but it was quickly suppressed; the landing itself almost ended in disaster, since the landing party was immediately discovered by government troops and only miraculously escaped complete destruction.
28 During the first three months, the position of the revolutionaries remained critical, but they managed to win the trust of the inhabitants of the region and organize significant military pressure on local military garrisons
29 The rebels were greatly helped by the fact that the Batista government during this period of time was in strained relations with Cuba’s main economic partner and military supplier at that time, the United States. Fulgencio Batista y Saldivar
30 Since the summer of 1958, the strategic initiative passed to the side of the revolutionaries. On January 1, 1959, rebel troops entered Santiago, at the same time in the west, rebels led by Che Guevara captured the city of Santa Clara. Batista left the island, after which the administration he left virtually ceased to exist. On January 2, rebel troops entered Havana. On January 6, Fidel solemnly arrived in the capital. Castro Ernesto Che Guevara
31 5. Chile in In September 1970, the candidate from the Popular Unity bloc, socialist senator Salvador Allende, won the presidential elections in Chile. The government he formed included representatives of socialists, communists and other left-wing parties Salvador Allende
32 Left forces sought revolutionary changes In 1971, copper and other mining industries, banks, and foreign trade were nationalized The share of the public sector in industrial production exceeded 60% Santiago
33 Workers' control was established in private enterprises. Beginning in the 1990s, the expropriation of latifundia began. Cooperatives were created on the lands transferred to the peasants. "Liberation of Chile") poster of the military government, 1973.
34 But as the transformations deepened, the government’s actions met with increasing resistance from right-wing forces. The media were involved in criticism of the government’s actions. Strikes were organized by small entrepreneurs and housewives
35 Disagreements also existed among the left forces. Some considered the ongoing reforms to be insufficient. The Communists insisted on establishing a dictatorship of the working people.
36 S. Allende adhered to moderate positions The leaders of the opposition relied on a military coup on September 11, 1973. The army rebelled, led by the commander-in-chief of the ground forces, General A. Pinochet Salvador Allende
37 Rebels stormed the presidential palace Allende's associates invited him to leave the palace The president refused and died during the storming of the palace After the coup, the power of a military junta was established in Chile From December 1974 to March 1990, A. Pinochet served as President of Chile, being at the same time the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces
38 A state of siege was introduced. The constitution was revoked. Parliament was dissolved. The National Unity parties were outlawed (in 1977, the activities of any parties in general were prohibited)
39 Trade unions were partially dissolved Arrests and torture began The stadium in Santiago was turned into a concentration camp A secret military police was created, which became a body of total surveillance of the population
40 The economic policy of the dictatorship provided for the denationalization of most of what had passed to the state under the Allende government. Land was returned to the previous owners
41 Foreign capital was allowed into the country. Industrial modernization was carried out. At the same time, great importance was attached to the development of export industries (copper, food)
42 Social consequences of modernization: - Growth of urban population - Increase in unemployment rate
43 The Constitution of 1980 served to consolidate the political foundations of the Pinochet regime. According to it, Pinochet’s presidential powers were extended for 8 years without holding elections. Augusto Pinochet
44 In December 1989, the opposition candidate, leader of the Christian Democratic Party P. Aylwin, won the elections. After 16 years of military junta rule, the civilian government of Patricio Aylwin came to power through constitutional means.
45 Chile today Executive branch The head of state is the president, who is also the head of government. Elected by the population for a 4-year term, without the right of re-election. The President has the right to appoint ambassadors and members of the government, determine the composition of the Supreme and Courts of Appeal, and appoint commanders of all branches of the armed forces and the chief of the National Police. The president also has the right of legislative initiative and introduces bills to parliament.
46 Legislative branch The highest legislative body is the bicameral National Congress: Senate of 38 members elected by the population for an 8-year term (with half of the senators changing every 4 years); Chamber of Deputies 120 members (2 deputies from 60 electoral districts), elected by the population for a 4-year term.
47 6. Latin American countries in At the end of the 1970s. the struggle against dictatorial regimes intensified in the countries of Central America and resulted in a revolution in Nicaragua
48 Insurgency occurred in El Salvador and Guatemala. There was a change from military regimes to civilian ones in the South American states of Ecuador (1979), Peru (1980), Bolivia (1982), Argentina (1983), Brazil (1985)
49 Historians have noted that Latin America entered the last decade of the 20th century with virtually no dictatorships
50 Difficulties of economic development: - In the 2000s there was a decline in production - The growth of gross domestic product decreased almost to zero - The outflow of private capital abroad increased - Inflation in 1989 reached 1200%
51 Mass strikes and spontaneous street protests began. Reforms began according to “neoliberal recipes.” They included the privatization of some enterprises nationalized in previous decades. State intervention in the economy was limited. An austerity regime was established.
52 As a result, it was possible to increase GDP growth and reduce inflation. The volume of capital investments from abroad increased. The United States and other creditor states wrote off part of the external debts. The fruits of neoliberal liberalization were taken advantage of by the top of Latin American societies. This predetermined the persistence of significant economic and social problems
53 Assignment: What would you classify as the main achievements of Latin American countries on the path of modernization in the second half of the 20th century? Name the most significant problems existing in this group of countries at the present stage
Cuban Revolution Completed by: student of class 11 "A" Ogarkov Vsevolod Checked by: Arsenyeva Lyubov Georgievna Coup d'etat May 10, 1952 Bankruptcy of the political superstructure Economic crisis
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Main development trends in the second half of the 20th century
The countries of Latin America in the second half of the 20th century were characterized by the same development trends. Which determined the history of the entire world community.
These include:
- accelerating scientific and technological progress;
- almost continuous local wars;
- recurrent structural crises;
- changes in demographics;
- the Cold War unleashed by the great powers;
- subsequent relaxation of world tensions;
- deepening integration;
- increasing global problems.
With the general development of Latin American countries with global development, the patriarchal features of long-gone eras were preserved within these states.
Definition 1
Latin America is a unifying name for states located south of the United States. These countries were once colonies of Spain and Portugal, whose languages were derived from Latin. Another name for them is Ibero-America.
In the 1950s-1990s, Latin American countries made various attempts to break out of eternal underdevelopment and overcome dependence. These attempts can be classified as political and social experiments.
Ways to modernize Latin American states
Note 1
During the Second World War, military operations were not carried out on the territory of Latin American states. Latin America used these terrible years, especially for European countries, to its advantage. The region turned into the main source of raw materials for warring Europe. The supply of raw materials boosted the economy and contributed to the overall development of Latin American countries
The history of all Latin American states in the post-war period can be divided into several groups, which are characterized by common features in modernization. One of the ways involves the creation of an alliance of national-patriotic forces to achieve a higher level of development. Populist policies aimed at gaining social support from the population brought populist leaders to power. They carried out modernization by mobilizing all internal reserves and formed an import-substituting industry. Argentina and Brazil have taken this path of development.
Brazil and Chile took a different path: they decided to establish military dictatorships. Dictators attracted foreign investment to carry out modernization and used the latest technologies.
In Nicaragua and Cuba, when carrying out modernization, the authorities relied on the help of the Soviet Union. Accordingly, leftist forces came to power in these countries. They established strict control over all spheres of society, built a planned economy and carried out reforms following the example of the USSR.
But for the most part, Latin American states have chosen the democratic path of development. They carried out modernization gradually and implemented a guaranteed social policy. Democratic regimes formed export-oriented economies.
Features of the development of Latin American countries
Latin American countries are characterized by the establishment of military dictatorships (juntas). For example, for Argentina, the establishment of a junta manifested itself in the form of Peronism. The Perón government carried out reforms through the creation of an extensive public sector in the economy. For this purpose, enterprises owned by foreigners were nationalized. Perron enjoyed the support of wide sections of the population. The reason for the massive support was the adoption of labor legislation, which improved the situation of workers.
The revolution in Cuba occupies an important place in the history of Latin American countries. The revolution led by Fidel Castro ended in 1959 with the overthrow of the Batista regime. The communists came to power and began building socialism.
Note 2
By the end of the 20th century, the policies of the juntas forced society to recognize their unsuitability for the democratic path of development. In the 1980-1990s, military regimes were overthrown in Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Chile.