Parts of speech are studied in primary school. Some of them are combined into special groups on special grounds. The pronoun, the numeral, the noun and the adjective are included in the group of inflected parts of speech, that is, they change in numbers and cases. You need to understand what declension is in order to correctly write the endings of the forms of one word that changes in cases.
How to determine the case of a noun - learning to determine the declension
The Russian language divides all nouns into 3 declensions:
- Type 1 - words m.r. and f.r. ending in -a or -я. For example, Rainbow, road, snake, track.
- Type 2 - words m.r. and cf. ending in -o or -e or having null ending. For example, education, House, oatmeal.
- Type 3 - words of female language ending in soft sign. They have a null ending. For example, doe, tribute, spruce, night.
Words of the same type of declension have the same endings when changing in cases. So when there are doubts about spelling case endings, you need to look at the change rules for the entire declension group to which the word belongs.
How to determine the case of a noun - features of cases
- We ask the question to the noun from those members of the sentence with which it is associated.
- Nominative case - questions who? what? For example, healer, forest. You can use an additional word: ( eat) who? – medicine man, (is) what? - Forest.
- Questions whom? what? answers Genitive with an additional word No. For example, ( no) who? - medicine man, (no) what? - the woods.
- Dative. Questions about the noun to whom? what? with an added word give. For example, (give) to whom? - healer, (give) what? – forest.
- Accusative. Using questions whom? what? with an added word see. For example, ( see who? - healer, (see) what? - Forest.
- Instrumental. Asking questions by whom? how?. You can use an additional word admire. For example, ( admire) who? - a healer, (admire) what? - forest.
- Last, Prepositional, answers questions about whom? about what? with the help of a word think. For example, who to think about? - sorcerer, think about what? - forest.
How to determine the case of a noun - how to distinguish the Nominative from the Accusative
Some forms of the Nominative and Accusative sometimes overlap because they answer the same question. what?
Consider suggestions:
- The snow was falling in big flakes.
- When we went outside, we saw snow.
Word snow answers the question what? in both sentences, has the same form, but different syntactic meaning.
In the first case, snow is the subject, in the second, the circumstance. I.e snow performs the action in the first sentence, and in the second the action is performed on it.
Noun snow in 1 sentence is in the Nominative case, in 2 - in the Accusative.
We examined the questions and auxiliary words of each of the cases. We considered the case of the coincidence of the word forms of the Nominative and Accusative cases. We analyzed how the syntactic role helps to determine the case in case of difficulties.
There are six cases in Russian, which are used to agree on words in a sentence. If this morphological category did not exist in the language, then we would not be able to understand a single sentence, since it would not express any specific thought.
Of course, some languages have fewer cases (for example, German has only four cases), and there are others in which the category of case is absent altogether (English). Each case is assigned its own form, and since the Russian language has a lot of word forms, learning it for a foreigner is a very difficult task. Let's look at instrumental case: questions, endings, prepositions. Let's start with what he says.
What does the instrumental case express?
There are five indirect cases in Russian (all except the nominative). The case we are considering also applies to them. If it is difficult to understand what the instrumental case is used for, then you can imagine the following picture: a certain person performs a specific action on some object: "I play with dog".
In Russian, it would be logical to put these objects in the form instrumental. Thus, the action that the person performs is transferred to the object. There are also situations when the instrumental case is used to express the subject (person) who performs the action. This phenomenon is observed in passive structures. For example, "built us House".
Many linguistic phenomena are difficult to define without context. To reveal the peculiarity of a word, you need to put it in a specific speech situation- put in the offer. Most often, instrumental forms are clearly presented in the form of an object.
Instrumental endings
Every language has distinctive features that separate one linguistic phenomenon from another. And since the concept of "case" refers to morphology, the main way of expressing it is inflection, or the more familiar word for us - ending. With the help of endings, we can easily separate one case from another. It is worth noting that the category of case is present only in nominal parts of speech (noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun). The name in the instrumental case is expressed in different ways. The instrumental endings depend on the type of declension:
1st declension: -oy and -oy, -ey and -ey ( foot - foot; her - her).
2nd declension: -om, -em (window, sea).
3rd declension: -yu (salt).
Knowing how to distribute words by type of declension and what endings the instrumental has, you will never confuse it with any other.
Case prepositions
Prepositions are another parameter by which one or another case can be calculated. And they play a significant role in determining the forms of cases. The use of prepositions with a noun plays an explanatory function about the location of an object in space and about how it interacts with things around it or how they interact with it. The case we are considering using prepositions does not specify the location of objects, it most likely expresses the relationship of the object with environment. There are not so many prepositions that are used with the instrumental case, and it will not be difficult to learn them. This case is used with prepositions such as: with, before, under, behind, over(living with parents, facing a choice, hiding under the table, come after me, trouble loomed over the hero).
Instrumental Questions
The instrumental case, like any other, has its own questions, with the help of which we can determine it. Since remembering the questions of cases is not so difficult, it is with the help of them that we most often determine in which case a particular word is expressed. The case we are interested in answers questions by whom? how? (I work (by whom?) as a carpenter; I am fond of (by what?) literature). If it is difficult for you to remember the question of the instrumental case, then mentally say the question: "I create by whom? What?", You can do the same with any case you like. Then all your doubts will immediately be dispelled. Now let's consider the instrumental case further, we already know the questions.
When is the question "by whom?", and when - "by what?"
Even from the course of natural history, we all know perfectly well that the environment around us is divided into living and inanimate nature. We see the same thing in natural language. Nouns are also divided into words that express living and inanimate objects. In any case there is a question, which is answered by a "living" object, and which one is answered by a "non-living" one. So, in the instrumental case there are two questions: "by whom?" and "what?" The question "by whom?" is used exclusively for words that denote living objects, and the question "what?" - only inanimate. Usually in each case, the question that comes first is for a living object, and the second is for an inanimate one. And even schoolchildren do not have any special difficulties in using the question.
Semantic meanings
By semantics is meant the meaning that a single word or any other linguistic phenomenon can convey. Nominal parts of speech can express a huge number of semantic meanings, and the instrumental case makes them more distinct. This is its main purpose. What can the instrumental case express? Numbers, gender and other morphological indicators. Let's look at the most common semantic meanings of the instrumental case:
- Object (the food was prepared by the chef).
- Subject (children went with us).
- Device (work with your hands, twist with a screwdriver).
- Time (beautiful day).
- Means (draw with a pencil).
- Path (fly over the city).
- The standard of comparison (wolf howl).
- Cause (to have a sore throat).
- Characteristics (beautiful soul).
The instrumental case is one of the indirect cases. The most characteristic meaning of the creative is instrumental, which incl. was reflected in its name. However, it is far from the only one: different meanings creative form an extensive and sometimes very non-trivial network. Instrumental case answers the questions – By whom? How?, can be used in verbal or adjectival positions.
The following endings correspond to the instrumental case: -oy (-oy) / -oy (-oy) / -ey (ey) (water / water, earth / earth, sick / sick, me / me, tower / tower, top / top) , -om / -em / -em (table / horse / sea, sanatorium), -th / -im (sick / worker), -th / -them (sick, call signs / yours, blue), -mi (children, all), -ami / -yami (scissors, two hundred / harp, chairs), - (rye, five), -a (forty), -mya (two), -y (one and a half), ∅ (coffee, khaki).
The endings of the instrumental case simultaneously with the proper case meaning also express:
for names of substantive types of declension - the meaning of the number;
the names of the adjective (red), adjective-reflexive (prominent), I (uncle) and II (all) pronominal types of declension (that is, most adjectives, all participles, some pronouns and nouns) have the meanings of number and gender (in singular .).
How to define instrumental case?
To find out the case of a noun, by the way, you need to ask questions of the instrumental case (Who? What?), and also highlight the case ending of the noun.
Case endings of T. p. are presented in the table.
| declination | Unit number | Mn. number | ||
| 1 declination | -oh (-s), -ey (-ey) | smile Oh, smile oyu,Statu to her, statue her,
sweet tooth Oh, sweet tooth oyu, uncle to her, uncle her |
-ami(s),-mi | smile ami,Statu yami,
sweet tooth ami, uncle yami |
| 2 declension | -ohm (eat) | Gingerbread ohm,Royal eat, rings ohm, Vaults eat |
Gingerbread ami,Royal yami, rings ami, Vaults ami |
|
| 3 declension | -Yu | Horse Yu,Sadness Yu | horses yami, horse mi,Sorrow yami | |
| Differing | -ey, -ey, -em | child to her, baby her,Put eat,
Banners eat |
child mi,Put yami,
Banners ami |
|
note. In the instrumental plural form, nouns of all declensions have the same endings. The exception is the heterogeneous noun "child" and some additional forms of T. p. nouns of the third declension.
The meaning of nouns in the instrumental case
In phrases and sentences, nouns in the instrumental case can have different meanings:
- subjective (the nail was hammered with a hammer, a mistake was made by an employee);
- object (admire music, have skills);
- definitive (vacuuming, she was clumsy);
- circumstantial (draw with a pencil, indicate with a ruler, work in the evenings, create a team, sing with a viola).
Instrumental prepositions
Nouns in the instrumental case are used both as a direct object (decorate with a pattern, speak in a bass voice), as well as with suggestions (stand in front of the house, fly over the sea). With nouns in T. p., prepositions are used - behind, in front of, under (podo), with (with), over, between, between.
Examples of nouns in instrumental case with prepositions: walk under rain, saucer under the cup, it is seen behind the cloud, carry behind the back, dispute between students, laugh over a joke, protrude in front of an audience, country house under Moscow, brother with sister, talk with a friend.
etc. without pretext
1. instrument of action : write with a pen, cut with a knife, wave your hand, push with your elbow;
2. in passive (passive) constructions : the work is written by a student, the room is illuminated by the sun; .
3.place of movement : walked along the avenue, park, field; they rode through the forest, along the river, sailed by the sea;
4.mode of transportation (transport) : travel by train, bus, tram, electric train, fly by plane, sail by steamboat. BUT! Ride a bike, a motorcycle, a car, sail a boat, a ship;
5. time : return late in the evening, work in the evenings, meet in the evenings, not see each other all day, wait for years, months;
6. mode of action : time flies like a bird, speak in a loud voice, bass, develop at a fast pace, time flies like a bird;
7. with adjectives : satisfied (satisfied) work, lake ornate fish, fruit rich vitamins;
8.with verbs : to be, to become, to be, to be, to appear, be called: to become a doctor, the ship seemed like a point, the point on the horizon turned out to be a ship, St. Petersburg was the capital of Russia;
etc. with prepositions
Use of a preposition from
1.compatibility: make friends with a girl, walk the dog, talk to colleagues;
2. defining meaning (what?): a house with large windows, with a balcony, an old man with a gray beard, a vase of flowers;
3. modus operandi (how?): listen with interest, wait impatiently, watch with fear;
4.=against : fight the disease, fight the enemy, fight the enemies, fight the boys;
5.congratulations on holiday, happy new year, promotion, housewarming
Use of a preposition behind
1.a place: grew up behind the house, was in the forest, around the corner, sit at the table, stand outside the door, live outside the city, the boy followed his father;
2. time : talk, talk at lunch, at dinner, at breakfast, at tea, at work;
3. goal of the movement : to go for bread, for shopping, for books, for children in Kindergarten, the hunter was chasing a hare;
4. in expressions : follow up child, criminal watch for events, for children;
5. = due to in expressions: due to lack free time, I did not complete the instructions , in the absence of materials construction is delayed;
Use of a preposition above
1.a place : flew over the forest, over the sea, carried an umbrella over his head, a lamp hangs over the table;
2.work (work) on mistakes, over a dissertation, over a project, over a translation;
3.to laugh at a joke, over stupidity, over an anecdote, over a clown;
4. think, contemplate question, over the meaning of life, over the meaning of the word
Use of a preposition under
1.a place : swim under water, hide from the rain under an umbrella, under a roof, lived near Moscow, lay under a table, slept under a warm blanket;
2. in combinations: worked under the direction professors was under surveillance doctor;
Use of a preposition between
1.a place : there was a garden between the houses, grass grew between the trees, a cupboard stood between the window and the door;
2.time: the break between classes, between lunch and dinner, will return between five and six o'clock;
3.reciprocity : relations between husband and wife, between relatives, friends, friendship between peoples, negotiations between countries;
4. in combinations : difference (difference) between man and woman similarities between sisters;
Use of a preposition front
1. a place : flowers grew in front of the house, stopped in front of the door;
2. time : returned before dinner, took a shower before going to bed, was born before the war, the sky darkened before a thunderstorm;
3. in combinations : speak before people, before students; obligation to society; responsibility to people
Question number 17.
Prepositional
The prepositional case is used only with prepositions (about, in, on, by, at): think about work, lies in a bag, lies on a table, ask at a meeting, see you upon arrival, upon return.
Use of prepositions
Preposition used to denote
subject of speech, thought, care: talk about war, think about children, dream about love, remember mother, ask for vacation, know about a trip, ask for help, remember duty, ask about health, take care of a puppy, worry about a child.
Preposition in used
to denote
1)places (inside): worked (where?) in the garden, linen lay in the closet, rested in the countryside, carried it in his pocket, participated in the competition;
2) time : born (when?) in June, lived in the middle of the twentieth century, arrived in 2007, returned at 12 o'clock, was ill in childhood;
3) state of mind : were (lived, were) in delight, in admiration, in surprise, in excitement, in grief, in sadness, in anger, in indignation. Everyone was delighted with the picture. He paced the room in agitation. She left in tears;
4) in combination with nouns naming clothes : to be (come) in a white dress, in a new suit, in a warm hat, in a black hat, in fashionable shoes, with glasses;
5) with verbs (and cognate nouns): to need(need) money doubt(doubt) in the rightness, to help(help) at work, blame(accusation) of lying , to suspect (suspicion) of a crime, to reproach (reproach) of indifference, to err (mistake) in estimating, refuse(refusal) to help, convince(belief), assure(assurance) in the rightness, in necessity, exercise(exercise) in pronunciation;
6) with an adjective: confident (confident) in victory, success, support, friend
Preposition on used
to denote
1)scenes (question where?): on the shore, in a meeting, in the south, in a tree;
2) means of transport : to go (fly, swim) by train, by car, by train, by bicycle, by plane, by ship, by steamboat, by boat, by horse;
3) time: one of these days, this week, at dawn;
4) with verbs : marry on the neighbor speak, write in Russian, play on a violin , insist on your opinion;
* You should distinguish and remember the use of prepositions in And on the to indicate a place.
but) in store, hospital, library, school, classroom, room, auditorium, theater, cinema, circus, city, village, garden, park, forest, country, prison;
b) on the factory, post office, station, train station, 1, 2, 3 ... course, performance, concert, lecture, lesson, class, meeting, square, street, north, south, west, east, stadium, market, homeland, freedom, freedom
Preposition at used
To designate
1) time (when?): under capitalism, under Peter 1, at a meeting. I learned the news from a friend when we met. During the life of her parents, she often came to her native city;
2)places (where?): The house has a garden. The school has a garden. The university has a canteen and a swimming pool.
3) terms : provided, with, in the absence of, if desired, with diligence, with the support, with the help, with the assistance. If you want, you can achieve a lot.
4) meaning "in the presence of »: I said this in front of witnesses. They only saw each other with their parents. You can't fight in front of the kids.
5) environment in combinations: by moonlight, by lamplight, by daylight. She read at night by candlelight.
Pretext on with a prepositional case is used to denote time in the meaning of ‘after’. Upon arrival In Moscow, we went to Red Square. Upon return he married in his homeland.
Nouns in P.p. have endings e (1 and 2 declensions), - And (3 declensions): in a song, at a meeting, in the city, in the sun, about happiness, in a fortress, about joy.
Some nouns male in P.p. have a special ending y(u). Such cases must be remembered: in the corner, in battle, in the garden, in the forest, in the side, in the (first, last) row, in paradise, in bloom, in delirium, in the workshop, in the closet, in the snow, on the edge, on the bridge, at the post, in the ranks, on the shore, on the fur, on the closet, on the side, on the corner, in the meadow, etc.
Question number 18.
Declension of nouns in plural .
Nouns of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd declensions have the same plural endings in D.p. (-am, -yam), in T.p. (-s, -s) and in P.p. (-s, -s). In R.p. The endings of nouns differ depending on the declension.
1 cl. I.p. lands, women, armies
R.p. lands, women, armies (zero ending)
2 fold. I.p. houses, heroes, affairs, fields, buildings
R.p. House ov , hero ev , div, gender to her , buildings
3 fold. I.p. night
R.p. night to her
R.p. plural
1 . noun (country, land, army) in R.p. plural have null ending : countries, lands, armies.
2. Ex. 2 declensions in R.p.pl. have different endings depending on the gender and on the sound with which the stem ends.
BUT. 1) Most nouns. m.r.(home, hero, battle) have endings - ov, -ev, -ev : houses - houses, hero - heroes, fight - fights.
2) If noun. in plural ends with - ya (brothers, chairs, leaves), they have an ending -ev: chairs, brothers, leaves .An exception : friends - friends to her , sons - sons to her .
3) Exist. with a base on c have an accented ending - ov , without stress - ev : fighters, Japanese.
4) End - yov, -ev have a noun. on the th : fight - fights (under stress), hero - heroes (without stress).
5) End - to her have a noun. into a soft consonant and into a hissing: rain - rain to her , fire - fire to her, doctor - doctor to her , comrade - comrade to her (+ friend to her , sons to her ).
6) Some nouns. m.r. in R.p.pl. have zero ending: soldiers soldier , partisans - partisan , six human, several once.
B. 1) Exist. cf. on the - about her in R.p. plural have null ending : windows, letters, guns, towels, schools, meetings. An exception: cloud about – cloud ov .
2) Exist. on the - about, which in I.p.pl. end in –ya (feather - feathers, wing - wings, tree - trees) in R.p.pl. have an ending ev: pen ev , wing ev , tree ev .
3) Exist. sea, field have an ending to her : sea - seas - sea to her , field - fields - floor to her .
3 .No. 3 declensions in R.p.pl. have an ending to her: door - doors - doors, night - nights - nights, mouse - mice - mice.
Special declension of nouns
sssr.r. on the - me (name, banner, time, etc.), m. way, zh.r. mother Daughter inclined in a special way.
Singular Plural
I. name, path, mother, daughter names, paths, mothers, daughters
R. name, path, mother, daughter of names, paths, mothers, daughters
D. name, path, mother, daughter names, paths, mothers, daughters
B. name, path, mother, daughter names, paths, mothers, daughters
T. name, way, mother, daughter names, ways, mothers, daughters
P. about the name, about the path, about the mother, about the daughter about names, about the ways, about mothers, about daughters
For some reason, the instrumental case evokes something magical and unpretentious, perhaps because it comes from the word “create”, which means to create something magical and necessary. The instrumental case makes our speech magical, helping to correctly place words in a sentence to give it a semantic load.
Questions of instrumental case.
The instrumental case answers the questions "By whom?", "What?". In addition to these questions, the word "satisfied" is often used.
"Satisfied with whom?" - a person;
"Satisfied with what" - work.
Parts of speech such as nouns are divided into two forms - this plural and singular. The instrumental case of a noun in singular will look like this:
"Behind table two people were sitting and talking”;
The plural will look like this:
"Behind tables guests invited to the wedding were sitting.
Instrumental endings.
When declension, that is, when changing the case, the ending of nouns always changes. Consider the endings characteristic of nouns in the instrumental case:
- Nouns of the first declension have the ending "Oh" (nog Oh , hands Oh );
- Second declension "Om" (table ohm , goat ohm );
- The third declension is characterized by the ending "Yu" (shawl Yu , true story Yu ).
Most often, the instrumental case is characteristic of words that are combined with verbs. This case form of a noun can be a mode of action or denote time, space, it can also indicate the one who performs the action. For example, "The road led ( how? ) forest" or "Fed the cat ( how? ) milk", "Work" Captain's daughter" was written ( by whom? ) A.S. Pushkin.