The most important means of expressing the relationship between the components of a phrase and the members of a sentence are:
1) word form, i.e. with the help of the ending, a connection is formed between words both in a phrase and in a sentence: solve a problem, solve a problem, solve a problem; passion for sports, devotion to homeland, second wind;
2) function words:
A) prepositions(along with the word form): books to read, left home, fight for supremacy, house with columns, talk about the trip;
b) unions(only in sentence): book and notebook, autumn or winter, read and write;
3) word order(in a sentence); compare: early autumn(attributive relations) – early autumn(predicative relations); five kilometers(exact quantity designation) – five kilometers(expression of approximate quantity); The sick brother is back(definition – adjective indicates a characteristic) – Brother came back sick(the adjective indicates a state and forms part of the predicate);
4) intonation(only in sentence): It will rain, let's go to the forest(the intonation of the enumeration indicates relations of homogeneity); If it rains, let's go to the forest(the intonation of conditionality indicates a conditional or temporary relationship). When you come home, change clothes And When you arrive home, change clothes; She danced well. Execution cannot be pardoned; The forest drops its crimson headdress.
The doctrine of phrases in Russian syntactic science
The problem of word combinations has long attracted the attention of Russian linguists. In the first grammatical works, the main content of syntax was considered to be the doctrine of “word composition”, i.e. about combining words in a sentence. Already in “Russian Grammar” A.Kh. Vostokov (1831) gives a fairly detailed description of the system of phrases in the Russian language. However, in the works of N.I. Grecha, G.P. Pavsky, F.I. Buslaeva, K.S. Aksakova, N.P. Nekrasova, N.I. Davydov’s problem of word combinations is relegated to the background, since in the middle of the 19th century. The main subject of syntax was the sentence.
Interest in the problem of word combinations was revived at the end of the 19th century, and the problem itself became central in the linguistic system of F.F. Fortunatov and his students. Fortunatov considered syntax to be the study of phrases, and considered the sentence as one of the types of phrases. These views were reflected in the work of A.M. Peshkovsky “Russian syntax in scientific coverage” (1914; 7th ed. - 1956), in the book by M.N. Peterson “Essay on the syntax of the Russian language” (1923).
In a number of textbooks and teaching aids for higher and high school a phrase began to be considered as a pair of words related in meaning and grammatically, isolated from a sentence.
Of interest is the interpretation of the phrase A.A. Shakhmatov (“Syntax of the Russian language.” 1941. P. 274): “ By phrase is called such a combination of words that forms a grammatical unity, revealed by the dependence of some of these words on others.” According to Shakhmatov, the syntax of phrases deals mainly with the secondary members of the sentence in their relation to the main members or in their mutual relation to each other, while the syntax of the sentence deals with the main members of the sentence in their relation to the sentence or in their mutual relation to each other. A sentence is also a phrase, but a complete phrase, and the remaining phrases are characterized as incomplete. Phrases fall into two types: independent , in which the dominant word appears in an independent form (the subject of a two-part sentence or the main member one-part sentence plus a grammatically related word), and dependent , in which the dominant word appears in a dependent form (all other phrases). As these arguments by Shakhmatov show, he separates phrases from the sentence. The combination of a subject and a predicate is not included in the number of pairs that form a phrase, therefore the grammatical connection between both main members is studied in the syntax of the sentence.
The question of whether a combination of a subject and a predicate is considered a phrase in the terminological understanding of this word, is fundamental, since it is associated with the distinction between the concepts of sentence and phrase: with a positive solution to the question, i.e. recognizing the existence of predicative phrases, a sentence may turn out to be a special case of a phrase or, what is the same, a phrase itself may be a sentence; on the contrary, when the issue is resolved negatively, i.e. non-recognition of the existence of predicative phrases, a sharp line is established between a sentence and a phrase.
The question of dividing phrases into subordinating (a generally recognized type of phrase) and coordinating (combinations of homogeneous members of a sentence) is also controversial. We find recognition of the second type in many authors (for example, A.M. Peshkovsky), but other researchers separate groups of homogeneous members from phrases (for example, V.V. Vinogradov).
Thus, the fundamental questions of the theory of phrases are the following: 1) does a phrase exist outside the sentence, in which it is included as a constructive element along with a separate word, or is the phrase isolated from a ready-made sentence; 2) whether there are “predicative phrases”, i.e. whether the phrase forms a pair consisting of a subject and a predicate; 3) whether there are “coordinate phrases”, i.e. whether the phrase forms a group of homogeneous members (so-called open series, open combinations). It is easy to see that the solution to the last two questions depends on the solution to the first, since both predicative relations and combinations of homogeneous members exist only as part of a sentence.
A fundamentally new solution to the problem under consideration as a whole is given by V.V. Vinogradov. In the book “Russian Language” (1972, p. 12) he writes: “ Collocation- this is a complex naming. It has the same nominative function as the word. It, just like a word, can have a whole system of forms. In the field of vocabulary, this concept corresponds to the concept of a phraseological unit of language.”
In connection with the analysis of the syntactic system A.M. Peshkovsky acad. Vinogradov writes: “...The idea inspired by A.M. is fundamentally erroneous. Peshkovsky acad. F.F. Fortunatov, as if the concept of a sentence can be derived from the concept of a phrase. A phrase and a sentence are concepts of different semantic series and different stylistic planes... A sentence is not at all a type of phrase, since there are also words-sentences. But even in its inner essence, in its constructive features, it cannot be directly derived from the phrase. The phrase... just like the word, represents construction material used in the process of linguistic communication. A sentence is a product made from this material, containing a message about reality” (see: The idealistic foundations of the syntactic system of Prof. A.M. Peshkovsky, its eclecticism and internal contradictions // Questions of the syntax of the modern Russian language. 1950. P. 38).
As is clear from the above quote, Acad. Vinogradov strictly distinguishes between the concept of a sentence and the concept of a phrase. The basis for this is the presence of special features in each of these concepts: a sentence is a unit of message, a communicative unit, and a phrase is a unit of naming, designation. A sentence contains complete content with appropriate intonation and is characterized by the presence of a modality category, while a phrase does not have these features. In a phrase there are only subordinating relations (see below), and in a sentence, along with them, there are also coordinating, explanatory, and connecting relations.
As for the relationship between a phrase and a word, they are brought together by the function they perform, and phrases, like words, have inflectional forms that express the connection of a given phrase with other words or phrases in a sentence, for example: brother's book, brother's book, brother's book etc. (the core word changes); old house, old house, old house etc. (both members of the phrase have the same inflection forms). Collocations can and should be studied not only as part of a sentence as its structural elements, but also outside it as lexical-semantic unities formed according to the laws of a given language. At the same time, there is a significant difference between a phrase and a word: the elements of a phrase (word) are formed separately, and the elements of a word (morphemes) are fused together (cf.: snow retention - snow retention ).
From the above, the following follows: 1) phrases are not the result of splitting a sentence into parts - a pair of words interconnected by subordinate relationships, but along with individual words they are included in the sentence as its constructive elements, performing the lexical-semantic function of complex naming of objects and phenomena; much less often, as a result of the interaction between phrases and sentences, separate types of phrases are formed within the latter, which, when isolated from a sentence, acquire a nominative meaning; 2) the number of phrases does not include pairs formed by the subject and the predicate, since here there are relations that arise only in a sentence (predicative relations); 3) do not form phrases or constructions connected by so-called semi-predicative relations, i.e. isolated phrase and the word to which it refers; 4) a group of homogeneous members (coordinating combination) does not form a phrase, since it is not a complex name for phenomena of objective reality. True, paired combinations of words such as father and mother (parents), husband and wife (spouses), day and night (day), etc., forming so-called closed combinations, the components of which are connected by connecting (less often adversative) conjunctions, are used in nominative function and are thus included in the category of phrases.
To express syntactic connections, the language has a variety of means, different at the level of connections in a phrase and a simple sentence and at the level of connections in a complex sentence.
1. Word forms, as minimal elements of syntactic constructions, serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions with their lexical and grammatical properties, and the elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning are endings and prepositions.
2. The main function of the ending is to express syntactic connections and relationships between word forms in phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called a service morpheme. The role of endings is especially important in the design of subordinating connections: in coordination and control.
3. The word forms include prepositions that complement and enhance the auxiliary role of endings. Prepositions are used to express syntactic connections between the forms of indirect cases of nouns: believe in victory, enter the house, alone with yourself.
4. Syntactic connections at the level of connection in a complex sentence, as well as some types of connections between word forms in a phrase and a simple sentence, are expressed by conjunctions, as well as their functional substitutes from other categories of words, in particular relative pronouns (conjunctive words).
Unions connecting with each other homogeneous members sentences, parts complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after etc. express the meaning of time, because, since, for etc. – the meaning of the reason, So– the meaning of the consequence.
Less clear indicators of grammatical meanings are coordinating conjunctions, but they also express semantic relationships between the components being composed.
5. Particles and their combinations can form indivisible sentences ( Yes. No. But of course! So what! Still would! Etc.), formalize the syntactic meanings of sentences, sentence members, act as semantic specifiers, independently perform the functions of means of communication syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.
6. Important role In the construction of syntactic constructions, lexical means of the language, which are called typified, play a role. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative ( who, what, which, where, where etc.), demonstratives ( this, that, such etc. in different forms; there, there, therefore and under.); lexical-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections, etc.).
Typical lexical means take part in the formation (construction) simple sentences. Thus, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, a lexico-grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( it's getting light, it's freezing) forms the structural center of one-part impersonal sentences; thematic group verbs with the meaning of speech ( talk, say) is a component of sentences with direct speech.
7. For the structure of syntactic units, word order is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. IN German The order of the components of syntactic units is of the direct type, but in the Russian language there are two types of word order: direct (fixed) and inverted (free). With direct order, each component of syntactic constructions occupies a certain place, with free order, the components can change their place.
8. One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional-expressive coloring of syntactic units is intonation, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress, highlighting the information center in the sentence.
Intonation means divide the syntactic structures of spoken speech into syntagmas, usually in accordance with syntactic connections. Sometimes such division becomes the only indicator of communication.
Intonation is one of the indicators of completeness and integrity of a sentence in oral speech; intonation formalizes the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relationships between the members of the sentence.
Types of syntactic connections.
The main types of syntactic connection are composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, and when subordinating, syntactically unequal components are combined: one acts as the main one, the other as the dependent one. A coordinating connection connects homogeneous members and parts of complex sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.
Types of syntactic connections in a phrase.
The subordinating syntactic connection at the level of the phrase is subordinative in nature. A subordinate connection is a direct and one-sided connection, a connection between a subordinate and a subordinate. Such communication is realized in three main ways: coordination, control and adjacency.
1. Agreement is a type of subordinating connection in which the forms of gender, number and case of the dependent word are predetermined by the forms of gender, number and case of the subordinating word. In agreement, certain relationships are always established.
Agreement may be complete or incomplete. Complete agreement is a relationship in which the influence of the main component on the dependent component extends to all their grammatical forms of the same name. Example: green grass, little boy, wood product(agreement in gender, number and case). Incomplete coordination is a connection in which the dependent component does not correlate with the main one in all forms of the same name.
There are two cases of incomplete agreement. The first case is the lack of correlation in case (when the dependent component is likened to the main component in number and gender). In a sentence Anya couldn’t eat and got up from the table hungry(Chekhov) word form hungry depends on the word form got up, which is expressed by the case form, and from the word form Anya, which is expressed by the correlation between the forms of number and gender.
The second case is the absence of likeness in gender. This is observed in combinations of adjectives with nouns male, naming professions or positions, when such nouns are used in relation to women: our doctor, new secretary.
2. Control is a type of subordinating connection in which the subordinate word takes the form of one case or another depending on the grammatical capabilities of the dominant word and the meaning it expresses. During management, object relationships are established ( write a letter), subject ( brother's arrival), complete ( chair leg). Phrases constructed according to the type of control express the relationship with the subject. The controlled word is always a noun or its equivalent: approached the neighbor, approached the departing. The dominant word in control can be a verb, a name and an adverb; On this basis, the verb control is distinguished - To buy a book, applied – a glass of milk, adverbial – alone with brother. Depending on the presence or absence of a preposition in in a manageable form may be prepositional control – love to motherland and unsentenced - send a letter.
Governance can be strong or weak. Strong control is such a dependence of a noun or a preposition with a noun on a verb in which there is a necessary connection between a given case or a given preposition with a given case, on the one hand, and the dictionary or grammatical side of the verb, on the other hand. Such a connection is required by transitive verbs, as well as some nouns, adjectives, and numerals, for example: send a letter, nine days, true to duty.
Weak control is defined as a connection that is not necessary, that is, one in which the dependent indirect case is not obligatory and is not predicted by the dictionary (lexical) or grammatical properties of the control word. Let's compare: water the flowers– strong management, water from a watering can– weak management.
3. Adjunction is a type of subordinating connection in which the subordinate word, being an unchangeable part of speech or a word form isolated from the system of cases, expresses its dependence on the dominant word lexically. In phrases with adjacency connections, adverbial and, less often, attributive relationships are expressed.
The adjacency is also heterogeneous in terms of the grammatical properties of the dependent form. On this basis, the following types of adjunction are distinguished: adjunction of the infinitive, adjunction of the gerund, adverb adjunction, adjunction of an unchangeable adjective, adjunction of the inconsistent form of the noun.
Types of syntactic connections in a sentence.
The types of syntactic connections in a sentence, compared to the types of syntactic connections in a phrase, are much wider and more diverse.
1. Verbal connection. A conditional clause is an obligatory or optional extender of a support word, usually located in an alternative position with a similar extender - the form of the word.
The nature of the proverbial subordinate clause is determined by the properties of the reference word. When forming complex sentences with subordinate clauses, the following properties of supporting words are essential: 1) belonging to a certain grammatical class - a part of speech that has the ability to be extended by a subordinate clause of a certain structure, and 2) belonging to a certain lexical class - a semantic group, also characterized by the ability to be extended by a subordinate clause part of a specific building. Let's compare: The thought that the interlocutor expressed captivated me; The thought that we are leaving tomorrow carried me away. In the first sentence, the nature of the distribution of the reference word thought is determined by the fact that it is a noun, which is why it is capable of attaching a substantive subordinate clause to itself; in the second, by the fact that it is included in the semantic-syntactic group of words that act as supporting words in explanatory sentences.
The means of expressing a verbal subordinating connection are asemantic conjunctions and allied words, that is, such means, the conjunctional role of which is to express dependence on the reference word.
2. Determinant connection. The connection of a determinant, a minor member of a sentence, expressed by a word form associated not with the word, but with the entire sentence. This relevance to the sentence is indicated by word order: the determiner is located at the beginning of the sentence. For example: In youth all people are dreamers, In this country speak Spanish.
3. Correlation. This connection is based on the coincidence of elements of the semantic organization of predicative units combined into a complex sentence, therefore anaphoric elements are always involved in the expression of this connection. Anaphoric elements of the main part are correlative words (demonstrative pronouns and their substitutes), the content of which is correlated with the content of the subordinate part and with which they interact, expressing this type of connection, allied words and those conjunctions that are used in this type of connection ( what to).
4. Gravity is a connection in which the nominal part of the predicate is correlated with the subject through the third component. For example: He was considered a hero.
5. Coordination. Word forms can occupy identical syntactic positions in a sentence, that is, they can be arranged in homogeneous rows.
6. Predicative connection is a connection between word forms representing components that are in a predicative relationship, that is, subject and predicate. The peculiarity of this connection is that the two components (subject and predicate) mutually define and subordinate each other. For example: The wind died down, the storm died down, the voices died down. On the one hand, this shows the coordination of the form of the predicate with the form of the subject in number and gender. On the other hand, the predicate determines the form of the subject - only the nominative case. Private variety predicative connection - the so-called coordination (term by V.V. Vinogradov), this is the connection between the subject - a personal pronoun in the form of 1st and 2nd person and the predicate - a verb in the appropriate form: I read, you read. In this case, it is impossible to establish what depends on what, since both the personal pronoun and the verb have an independent person form.
Relationship between syntax and other levels of language.
In modern research, language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. The lowest tier (level) is phonology, the highest is syntax.
Let's consider this connection of syntax with other levels of language based on the hierarchy of language levels: phonetics, word formation, vocabulary, morphology.
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Ways of expressing syntactic relations in phrases and sentences
The most important means of expressing relationships between members of a phrase (and members of a sentence) is the form of the word. With the help of inflection, the connection of all modifiable words acting as dependent components of phrases is formed, for example: problem solving, devotion to the homeland, passion for sports, interesting story, second group, our successes etc.
Prepositions play a significant role in the construction of phrases, which, together with the form of the word, serve as a means of expressing connections and relationships between members of phrases, for example: a cure for pain, a walk in the forest, an assignment for the week, friendship between children, a story about the past.
The use of prepositions in the construction of phrases expands the possibilities of creating synonymous phrases. Wed. prepositional and non-prepositional phrases: letter to brother - letter to brother, table leg - table leg; or phrases with various prepositions: control over execution - control over execution, talking about the trip - talking about the trip - talking about the trip - talking about the trip.
Word orderin phrases in some cases it has a more or less stable character. Thus, adverbs na-o, -e are usually prepositive in relation to the main word expressed by the verb, for example: work hard, love sincerely; other adverbs of manner are postpositive, for example: walk, wipe dry, speak German. The order of words in a phrase serves a grammatical function; compare: interesting book(attributive relations in a phrase) - the book is interesting(predicative relations in a sentence). For the role of word order in a simple sentence, see the corresponding chapter.
As for intonation as a means of expressing syntactic relations, it finds its expression in a sentence, but not in a phrase (cf. intonational design of sentences, intonation with homogeneous members of a sentence, with isolation, etc.).
Other function words, in addition to prepositions, are not used in the construction of the phrase, i.e. conjunctions and particles: both are associated with a sentence where there are coordinating relations, modality of utterance, etc.
Thus, the ways of expressing syntactic relations in phrases are as follows: 1) word forms, 2) prepositions, 3) word order, and in a sentence: 1) word forms, 2) function words, 3) word order, 4) intonation.
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Types of syntactic connections in phrases and sentences
There are two main types of syntactic connection in a sentence - composition and subordination. When composing, elements (sentence members) that are syntactically equal and independent of each other come into connection, for example: book and notebook (lie on the table); (read) books, newspapers, magazines. When subordinated, syntactically unequal elements come into connection (one depends on the other), for example: read a book, friend's advice.
Subordination has three types of syntactic connections: coordination, control and adjacency.
Coordination- this is a type of subordinating connection in which the dependent word is likened in its form to the dominant word, for example: important question, main street, new houses. There is a distinction between complete and incomplete coordination. With full agreement, the subordinate word takes all forms of the subordinating word, as far as the grammatical categories of both words allow, for example: on a dark night (agreement in gender, case and number); last minutes(agreement in case and number); marks are set(agreement in number). In case of incomplete coordination, not all coordination possibilities have been exhausted, for example: I see him ready to leave(agreement of the adjective ready with its pronoun in gender and number, but not in case; cf. obsolete construction I see him ready to leave- with full approval).
Control- this is a type of subordinating connection in which the dependent word is placed in a certain case form (without a preposition or with a preposition), determined by the lexico-grammatical meaning of the dominant word, for example: read a letter, interest in art, love of homeland. Stand out different kinds control depending on the morphological nature of the dominant word, the presence or absence of a preposition before the dependent word, the nature of the connection between both words.
Management happens subsubstantive(reading a book), adjective ( capable of music), verb (write with a pen), adverbial ( answered better than me).
Controls vary direct, or prepositional (see the picture), and mediocre, or prepositional ( look at the picture).
Control is called strong if there is a necessary connection between the dominant and dependent words, expressed in the fact that the dominant word needs to spread a certain case form, For example: testing the machine, breaking the silence, full of vigor. Under weak control, the connection between both words is optional; it is not determined by the lexico-grammatical features of the dominant word as a necessary connection, for example: sun sunset behind the forest, often I walk in the evenings.
Adjacency- this is a type of subordinating connection in which the dependence of the subordinate word is expressed lexically, by word order and intonation. Adjacent to unchangeable significant words (adverb, infinitive, gerund), for example: whisper quietly, offer to enter, speak smiling.
Since there are subordinating relations in a word combination, its members are interconnected by one of the types of subordinating syntactic connection - agreement, control or adjacency. The choice here depends on the morphological nature of the main or dependent word. Thus, in verb phrases there is place or control ( read a letter, write with a pencil), or adjacency ( read a lot, live far away), but there is no agreement connection (agreement of the verb itself is possible only in a sentence). Collocations with a noun as the main word allow all three types of syntactic connection ( stone house, completing a task, desire to learn, Warsaw coffee). In other noun phrases we find certain restrictions depending on the lexico-grammatical properties of the main word, for example: control and adjacency in phrases with an adjective as the main member ( worthy of reward, ready to do, very useful), management in phrases with a numeral (two months), coordination and management in phrases with a pronoun ( something interesting, some of my friends). In adverbial phrases we encounter the connection of adjacency and control ( too quiet, far from Moscow).
Although within phrases the forms of subordinating connections are the same as between members of a sentence, this convergence does not provide a basis for confusing the two. In addition, we should not forget that even the same types of connections can manifest themselves differently in a phrase and in a sentence.
Thus, in a sentence, members are possible that relate not to one word, but to the rest of the sentence as a whole. For example, in the sentence In old age, life is such a joy for us! the circumstance of time for old age is connected not with one word, but with the whole combination of words.
The works of linguist scientists show a wide variety of those phenomena that are commonly called coordination, control and adjacency, therefore, the opinion is increasingly expressed about the need to revise the traditional teaching about the types of grammatical connections between words and introduce new, more differentiated and precise concepts in this area into science , this is especially true for types of syntactic connections in a sentence.
So, for example, special types of connection between the predicative member and the subject are seen: gravity ( He came cheerful; Mother walked around happy); coordination (I read); juxtaposition (We are against war). A special type of connection, in contrast to adjacency at the level of a phrase, also arises between the determiner and the sentence that includes it. This connection qualifies as a connection free relationship, for example: Houses in Moscow everything was already like winter(Ch.).
Communicative-syntactic functions .
1) Intonation forms the utterance as a single whole, while simultaneously dividing it into rhythmic groups, syntagmas .
2) Formulates communicative types of statements: narrative, interrogative, incentive, etc. For example: I forgot what day it is today. What day is today? What day is today!
3) Distinguishes parts of a statement according to semantic significance, expresses actual division: In October /he goes on a business trip/. Is he going on a business trip in October?
In addition to the mentioned communicative-syntactic functions, intonation performs the functions speech, communicative-pragmatic- expresses attitudes towards the situation, towards the addressee, etc. For example: Passed the test? - Passed! (joy), or: Da-al... (displeasure, self-irony).
Constructive-syntactic functions.
Intonation accompanies any construction in its specific implementation. But there are constructions for which intonation plays a vital role. For example, there are sentences whose structure expresses the presence large quantity. This value is generated by the form genitive case: To the people! Colors!
Intonation plays a special role in non-union constructions of simple and complex sentences (homogeneous members of a sentence without conjunctions, isolated members of a sentence, non-union complex sentences). Here are some examples:
The reassured sister left. - Calmed down, the sister left. How are these proposals different? The absence or presence of isolation, intonation highlighting of the “calmed” component. What does it mean? With isolation, intonational emphasis, the syntactic connections and the syntactic role of the word form “calmed” change: it acquires a double connection (with a subject noun and a predicate verb) and performs the function of a semi-predicative member of the sentence. Syntactic differences are expressed by intonation.
I'll pass my exams and go on vacation. I'll pass my exams and go on vacation. Differences in intonation are associated with differences in syntactic meanings: in the first case - a listing of situations, in the second - conditional-consequential relations (If I pass the exams, I’ll go on vacation).
Same intonation structure (IC) can fit different designs, different types statements.
Syntax and word formation. Firstly, syntax and word formation have a certain general similarity. Secondly, the connection between these levels is manifested in specific methods of word formation.
The general similarity lies in the fact that both syntax and word formation are processes or results of the formation of secondary linguistic signs from the original, primary ones: words - from morphemes; phrases, sentences - from words, word forms. From this point of view, both word formation and syntax relate to the phenomena derivations (derivation - abduction, formation).
A specific manifestation of the connection between word formation and syntax is observed in certain methods of word formation. Words can be formed on a syntactic basis:
a) Morphological-syntactic method- change in syntactic properties (syntactic function and syntactic connections) and paradigm. For example:
ü substantivization - transition of an adjective into a noun (workroom, teacher's room, control room, etc.);
ü adverbialization - transition of other parts of speech, most often prepositional-case forms of nouns, into an adverb (with annoyance, in embarrassment, in turn);
ü particularization - transformation into a particle (one meaning “only”: About this I can say one you).
b) Lexico-syntactic method- lexicalization of a phrase, fusion, i.e. turning a syntactic unit into one lexeme: crazy, simpleton, instant, sedentary, bright red, etc.).
Syntax and vocabulary. Lexical meanings of words exist in the dictionary, in the lexical system of the language. But at the same time, vocabulary affects the syntactic properties of words:
a) on their syntactic functions,
b) on their syntactic compatibility.
There is a dependence (in certain cases, not obligatory) of syntactic properties on the LZ.
A) There are nouns that easily and naturally form sentences. These are words with event semantics: Night. Silence. Fire! They are contrasted with words with subject semantics, which do not have this property: book, birch, girl.
b)The influence of semantic features of words on their syntactic compatibility:
Words (mostly verbs) denoting speech-mental activity, for example: tell, tell, talk, think, reflect, dream - about what / about whom. The object of speech, thought is expressed in the Russian language in exactly this form.
Words with modal semantics (denoting the possibility, necessity, desirability of an action) are combined with an infinitive (denoting an action - possible, necessary, desirable): I need to do it, I can rest, I can help, I want to leave, I have to tell. As we see, what is important here is precisely lexical meaning words, and not its belonging to one or another part of speech.
Syntax and morphology. There is a very direct relationship and interaction between these levels of the language system.
1) The relationship between syntax and morphology lies in the fact that they belong to one general level - grammar. What is grammar? This is the formal organization of language, a system of abstract categories that represent unity of abstract grammatical meanings and their formal expressions.
For example: Words grass, really, grandma have the same morphological form, i.e. morphologically and grammatically they do not differ. This word form can be represented as noun, feminine singular, Nominative case.
Offers It's getting dark. To me can't sleep. From the window strongly blowing. have the same syntactic and grammatical form - conjugated form of the verb in the third person singular.
2) The interaction of morphology and syntax is manifested as follows: on the one hand, morphology serves syntax, on the other hand, morphology determines the syntactic structure of the language.
The word form is used as part of syntactic formations, it is a component of a syntactic unit. For example, the syntactic possibilities of verbal word forms are always the predicate as a predicative form (mood, tense, person). The infinitive, as a form that abstractly denotes an action (indefinite form of the verb), can be used in very different syntactic roles: subject, predicate, main member of a one-part sentence, secondary member of a sentence.
For example: Fishing is his passion (infinitive - subject), You must leave (infinitive - component of a compound predicate), I ask you not to leave (infinitive - object).
Now let's turn to the other side of the interaction between morphology and syntax: morphology determines the syntactic structure, determining the features of syntactic connections and syntactic constructions. The main ways of subordinating connections between words and other words are coordination, control and adjacency. The difference between the ways of subordinating words with other words is determined by the morphological features of dependent words (similarity, expression of dependence by case, immutability).
But in Russian morphology there is also elements of the analytical system: expression of subjunctive forms (would come) and some forms of the imperative mood (let him come), analytical forms comparative degree (more diligent).
There are also manifestations in the syntax analyticity: compound predicate, syntactically indivisible combinations when two or more words form one member of a sentence (She started singing (how?) in a low, beautiful voice).
3. Syntax units
Syntax units: phrase and sentence
Collocation is a combination of two or more significant words that are related grammatically and (or) in meaning: desk, tall man, laughing loudly, met friends.
From the definition of a phrase it follows that a phrase is formed only by a combination of significant words that are in a relationship of special dependence. Therefore, they are not phrases:
1) a combination of auxiliary and significant words: at the window, with my sister;
2) complex forms of parts of speech: the most beautiful, I will read;
3) combination of subject and predicate: Winter came;
4) coordinating series of words (homogeneous members of the sentence): brother and sister; not the truth, but a lie;
5) the word being defined and an isolated member of the sentence: Attracted by the light, butterflies circled around the light bulb. Looking around, hunters made their way further. Isolated members of the sentence and defined words do not represent intonational unity and, in addition, semi-predicative relations arise between them, similar to the relations between the main members in a two-part sentence (cf. Butterflies were attracted; the hunters looked around);
6) are not phrases introductory words/ introductory words do not enter into a grammatical connection with any word in the sentence: You, probably, didn't know about it.
Thus, the components of the phrase are the main (or core) word, which is independent, and the dependent word, which is subject to the requirements
Special subordinate relationships are established between the main and dependent words in a phrase.
Structural types of phrases
1) structural models of word combinations;
2) types of phrases according to the lexico-grammatical nature of the main word;
3) syntactic connections in phrases
According to their composition, all phrases are divided into simple and complex (or difficult ones). Simple phrases , as a rule, consist of two components: ask about your son, birch branch. Simple phrases also include three-term phrases containing syntactically indecomposable units: A boy of seven years old; Walk at a leisurely pace.
Difficult phrases there are two types:
a) complex;
b) combined.
IN complex phrase 1 main word and several dependent components, and the type of connection between the main and dependent words is parallel subordination . Scarlet light of dawn, deeply study the material, the last fishing on the lake. The word “light” is the main word for two units: “scarlet” and “dawn”. What light? – scarlet, light of what? - dawn. The situation is the same in other nearby phrases with the main components “study” and “fishing”.
IN combined phrases there are two or more main words and, accordingly, two or more dependent components.
For example, in the phrase “make an effort to rise from the ground”- 3 main words from which questions are asked to the dependent components: do what? what effort? rise from where? Dependent elements are simultaneously word forms - effort, to rise from the ground, since it is to them that the questions from the main ones are directed.
Thus, the chain of sequential dependence in this combined phrase looks like this:
Do what? - an effort; what effort? – rise; rise from where? - from the ground.
In speech practice there are many phrases that contain simultaneously elements of complex and combined phrases; this can be seen in the example: Glaciers on the mountains are clearly visible through the palm leaves from the seashore.
Visible where? - from the shore, from which shore? - seas. Visible in what way? - through the leaves, through what leaves? - palm trees
Thus, the word "visible" is the main component for several units. And at the same time, the elements dependent on it have their own dependent units.
The nature of syntactic relations between the components of phrases
The meaning of a phrase is the relationship that arises between the main and dependent words. Within phrases the following types of syntactic relations can be realized:
1) attributive;
2) object;
3) subjective;
4) comprehensive;
5) circumstantial.
Attributive relations observed when the main word in a phrase is expressed as a noun without verbal semantics or a pronoun with a generalized objective meaning: Lamp with lampshade, morning dawn, one of the young people.
Object relations arise between the main word, which has verbal semantics, and the dependent word, denoting a specific object: See a house, buy a book, learn languages.
Subjective relations appear if the main word is expressed by a verbal noun, and the dependent word is expressed by a noun in the gender form. p. with the meaning of the subject - the performer of the action: Arrival of brother /Brother arrived/, research of scientist /etc. e. scientist researched/. Subjective relations also arise in constructions with dative case noun with the meaning of the subject and with the instrumental: The child is not doing well. The project was developed by engineers.
Complementary or complementary relationships arise in cases where the main word is not informative enough, and the dependent word is a necessary semantic addition, an addition that fills the information gap. Quantitative numerals, nouns with quantitative meaning, and individual linking verbs act as informatively insufficient words: Three notebooks, several lines, a lot of misunderstandings, the majority of those present, reputed to be an eccentric, are inspectors.
Circumstantial relations arise, first of all, in phrases with the main word-verb, the dependent word expresses an abstract concept /space, time, etc./: He worked before the war, was drawn to the south, returned late, struck on purpose, choked in surprise.
Types of connections between words in a phrase and in a sentence
As is clear from the traditional definition of the phrase, its components are in a relationship of certain dependence (“subordination”) with each other. Methods (types) of subordinating connections – control, coordination and adjacency.
Control- this is a type of subordinating connection in which the dependent word is placed with the main word in a certain case: cut with a knife, sit in a chair, write to your mother, etc.
The means of formalizing control are usually prepositions; control can be non-prepositional or prepositional. Governance can be strong or weak.
With strong control, the main word predicts the form of the dependent word: read a book, reading a book, three tables. With weak control, the main word does not predict the form of the dependent word: walk near the river, walk with a friend, house in the forest.
Coordination- this is a type of subordinating connection when the dependent word is placed in the same forms as the main one: favorite book, my diary, favorite book, my diary. In coordination, when the forms of the main word change, the form of the dependent word changes.
Adjacency- this is a type of subordinating connection of words in which the dependent word, being unchangeable, is connected with the main word only in meaning, i.e. logically: very sweet, went to study, walked slowly, lying down, reading, reading aloud. Adjacent, as a rule, are the unchangeable significant parts of speech: adverbs, gerunds, infinitives.
It is difficult to establish the nature of the connection in some phrases: convey in words, change before our eyes, stand waist-deep in water, since a noun in prepositional-case forms of this type is close in meaning to an adverb, although it has not become one. In such phrases, the method of communication is defined either as weak control or as adjacency.
Taking into account the objective difficulties of distinguishing between control and adjacency, in school practice all case and prepositional case forms are considered as control.
To construct syntactic units, lexical, phonetic, morphological, and syntactic means are used. They also serve to formalize syntactic connections and relationships.
Morphological means– these are word forms and their elements, endings and prepositions. The main function of the ending is to express syntactic connections and relationships between word forms in phrases and sentences. The role of endings is especially important when formalizing subordinating connections: when coordinating and managing:
Was reading a book– graduated from n. – subordinating connection.
The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement, strengthen, and specify the semantics of word forms, which include: at the house– near the house, opposite the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the house etc.
An important role in the construction of syntactic constructions is played by lexical means languages, which are called typed. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative ( who, what, which, where, where etc.), demonstratives ( this, that, such etc. in different forms; there, there, therefore and under.); lexical-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be united thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections). Thus, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, a lexico-grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( it's getting light, it's freezing and so on) forms the structural center of one-component impersonal sentences; thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech (speak, say, etc.) - a component of sentences with direct speech, etc. For example, verbs of speech, thoughts - said that– this is a signal for an explanatory structure; a group of words of the state category, for example, constitutes a group of impersonal sentences.
One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and the emotional and expressive coloring of syntactic units is intonation, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress, highlighting the information center in the sentence.
Intonation is included in the number essential features sentences, since it is one of the indicators of completeness and integrity of a sentence in oral speech; intonation formalizes the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relationships between members of sentences, etc. Intonation is also very important when expressing the verbal meaning of a sentence: it can turn a positive assessment into a negative one, etc. The intonation characteristics of syntactic units in written speech (in the language of fiction) are often given with the help of lexical-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of circumstances of the manner of action with verbs of speech: with reproach, with reproach...; angrily, joyfully...; fast slow...; quiet, loud...; with emphasis on... and so on.
1) function words;
2) word order.
I. Unions , connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after etc. express the meaning of time, because that, since, for etc. – the meaning of the reason, So– the meaning of the consequence.
Particles and their combinations can form:
a) indivisible sentences ( Yes. No. But of course! So what! Still would! etc.),
b) act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.: That's all what I see in front of me.
II. For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. The order of words in a sentence performs the following functions:
a) communicative – highlights an important message;
b) grammatical - delimits ch. and secondary members of the sentence: Life is harmony. Harmony is life.
c) proper semantic function - changing shades of meaning: About thirty boys and girls were sitting in the classroom. – an approximate number is expressed.
d) stylistic function: I take the yellowing strands.