On the planet, it has very interesting story, filled with bright events and facts. Many experts believe that the once powerful and influential Arab Caliphate owes its emergence to the successful activities of the Prophet, who managed to unite in a single faith a large number of previously separated tribes. The best period of this theocratic state can be considered the decades when the righteous caliphs were at its head. All of them were the closest associates and followers of Muhammad, who were related to him by blood. Historians consider this period of the formation and development of the caliphate to be the most interesting; it is often even called the “golden era”. Today we will talk in detail about all four Rightly Guided Caliphs and their most significant achievements at the head of the Muslim community.
The concept of "caliphate": a brief description
At the beginning of the seventh century, the Prophet created a small community of co-religionists spread across Western Arabia. It was called ummah. Initially, no one imagined that thanks to the military campaigns and conquests of the Muslims, it would significantly expand its borders and become one of the most powerful associations over several centuries.
The words “caliphate” and “caliph” translated from Arabic mean approximately the same thing - “heir”. All rulers were considered the successors of the Prophet himself and were very revered among ordinary Muslims.
Among historians, the period of existence of the Arab Caliphate is usually called the “golden age of Islam,” and the first thirty years after the death of Muhammad were the era of the righteous caliphs, which we will tell our readers about today. After all, it was these people who did a lot to strengthen the position of Islam and the Muslim state.
Rightly Guided Caliphs: names and dates of reign
The first caliphs accepted Islam during the life of the Prophet. They were well aware of all the nuances of life in the community, because they always helped Muhammad in matters of governing the ummah and took a direct part in military campaigns.
The four righteous caliphs were so respected by the people during their lifetime and after death that later a special title was invented for them, literally meaning “walking the righteous path.” This phrase fully reflects the attitude of Muslims towards their first rulers. Further caliphs were not awarded this title, since they did not always come to power through honest means and were not close relatives of the Prophet.
By year of reign, the list of caliphs is as follows:
- Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (632-634).
- Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk (634-644).
- Uthman ibn Affan (644-656).
- Ali ibn Abu Talib (656-661).
During their reign over the caliphate, each of the Muslims listed above did everything possible for the prosperity of the state. Therefore, I would like to tell you more about them.
The first righteous caliph: the path to the heights of power
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq was one of the first who wholeheartedly believed the Prophet and followed him. Before meeting Muhammad, he lived in Mecca and was quite rich. His main activity was trade, which he continued to engage in after converting to Islam.
While still in Mecca, he began active work to develop the Muslim community. The Righteous Caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq spent huge sums of money on this and was engaged in the ransom of slaves. It is noteworthy that each of the slaves received freedom, but in exchange had to become a true believer. We think it goes without saying that this deal was very profitable for the slaves. Therefore, the number of Muslims in Mecca grew rapidly.
After the Prophet decided to move to Medina, the future caliph followed him and even accompanied Muhammad when he was hiding in a cave from assassins sent.
Subsequently, the Prophet married the daughter of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, which made them blood relatives. After that, he more than once went with Muhammad on military campaigns, performed Friday prayers and led pilgrims.
In the year six hundred and thirty-two, the Prophet died without leaving heirs or appointing a new successor, and the Muslim community faced the choice of a new leader.
The reign of Abu Bakr
The companions of Muhammad could not agree on the candidacy of the caliph, and only after they remembered the numerous services of Abu Bakr to the Muslim community, the choice was made.
It is worth noting that the righteous caliph was a very kind and absolutely not vain person, so he also involved other followers of the Prophet in the administration, distributing responsibilities among them.
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq gained power at a very difficult time. After the death of Muhammad, many people and tribes turned away from Islam, believing that they could now return to their former life. They broke their treaty obligations to the caliphate and stopped paying taxes.
For twelve years, Abu Bakr took action to maintain and expand the boundaries of the caliphate. Under him, a regular army was formed, which managed to advance to the borders of Iran. At the same time, the caliph himself always admonished his soldiers, forbidding them to kill women, babies and old people, as well as to mock their enemies.
In the thirty-fourth year of the seventh century, the army of the caliphate began to conquer Syria, but the ruler of the state at that time was dying. In order to prevent conflicts in the caliphate, he himself chose a successor among his closest associates.
Second Caliph
Umar ibn ruled the Muslim country for ten years. Initially, he was very skeptical about Islam, but one day he happened to read a surah, and he became interested in the personality of the Prophet. After meeting him, he was imbued with faith and was ready to follow Muhammad anywhere in the world.
Contemporaries of the second righteous caliph wrote that he was distinguished by incredible courage, honesty and selflessness. He was also very humble and pious. Very large sums of money passed through his hands as the Prophet's chief advisor, but he never succumbed to the temptation to enrich himself.
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk often took part in military battles and even married his beloved daughter to Muhammad. Therefore, it is not surprising that on his deathbed the first caliph named Umar as his successor.
Achievements of Umar ibn al-Khattab
The second righteous caliph did a lot for the development of the administrative system of the Muslim state. He created a list of people who received annual benefits from the state. This register included the Prophet's companions, warriors and members of their families.
Umar also laid the foundations of the tax system. It is interesting that it concerned not only monetary payments, but also regulated relations between different citizens of the caliphate. For example, Christians did not have the right to build their homes higher than Muslim houses, to have weapons and to publicly display their symbols of faith. Naturally, the faithful paid taxes less than the conquered peoples.
The merits of the second caliph include the introduction of a new calculation system, legal system and the construction of military camps in the conquered territories to prevent uprisings.
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk paid great attention to construction. He managed to enshrine urban planning rules at the legislative level. The example of Byzantium was taken as a basis, and most cities of that time were distinguished by slender and wide streets with beautiful houses.
During the ten years of his reign, the caliph laid the foundations for national and religious unity. He was merciless towards his enemies, but at the same time he was remembered as a fair and active ruler. Many historians believe that it was during this period of time that Islam declared itself as a strong and fully formed religious movement.
Third ruler of the caliphate
During his lifetime, Umar created a council of six of his closest associates. It was they who had to choose a new ruler of the state who would continue the victorious march of Islam.
He became Uthman ibn Affan, who remained in power for about twelve years. The third righteous caliph was not as active as his predecessor, but he belonged to a very ancient and noble family.
Uthman's family converted to Islam even before the Prophet moved to Medina. But relations between the aristocratic family and Muhammad were quite tense. Despite this, Uthman ibn Affan would have married the daughter of the Prophet, and after her death he received an offer to marry his other daughter.
Many believe that Uthman's numerous connections made it possible to spread and strengthen Islam during Muhammad's lifetime. The future caliph knew many noble families and thanks to his active work, a large number of people accepted Islam.
This strengthened the position of the then small community and gave a powerful impetus to the creation of a religious state.
The reign of Caliph Uthman
If we describe these years briefly, we can say that the third caliph retreated from the principles adhered to by his predecessors. He placed family ties above all else, thereby throwing the caliphate back into the days of the proto-state.
Uthman's relatives and associates had a penchant for money-grubbing and sought to enrich themselves at the expense of other residents of the caliphate. Naturally, this led to increased material inequality and unrest.
Surprisingly, during this difficult period, the boundaries of the caliphate continued to expand. This was facilitated by military conquests, but it was extremely difficult to keep the conquered peoples in obedience to the caliph.
This eventually led to a rebellion, which resulted in the death of the Caliph. After his death, a bloody period of civil strife began in the state.
Fourth Caliph
The Righteous Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib, who became the fourth ruler of the “golden era,” was one of very unusual people. Of the entire galaxy of caliphs, he was the only blood relative of Muhammad. He was his cousin and the second person to convert to Islam.
It so happened that Ali and the Prophet were brought up together. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Caliph married the daughter of Muhammad. Subsequently, from their union two boys were born, to whom the Prophet was very attached. He talked for a long time with his grandchildren and was a frequent guest in his daughter’s family.
Ali often took part in military campaigns and was distinguished by simply legendary courage. However, until his election as caliph, he did not hold important government positions.
Ali ibn Abu Talib as caliph: historians' assessment
Ali's personality seems extremely contradictory to experts. On the one hand, he did not have organizational skills, political talents or a flexible mind. It was under him that the preconditions for the collapse of the caliphate emerged, and Muslims were divided into Shiites and Sunnis. However, no one can deny his fanatical devotion to the cause of Muhammad and loyalty to his chosen path. Moreover, his untimely death elevated him to the rank of martyr. He is credited with many feats and deeds worthy of a saint.
Based on the foregoing, historians conclude that Ali turned out to be a true Muslim, but was never able to contain the separatist sentiment in the caliphate.
IN Holy Quran The Almighty says (meaning): “Among Muslims there are men who are faithful to the covenant (steadfastness with the Prophet) given by them to Allah. Among them there are those who fulfilled their vow (fighting in the path of Allah), there are also those for whom the deadline for its fulfillment is has not yet come, but they have in no way changed (the covenant).”
Umar ibn al-Khattab is the second righteous caliph, the commander of the faithful, for whom the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) prayed, asking the Almighty: “O Allah, strengthen Islam with Umar ibn al-Khattab,” and when Umar accepted Islam, this gave Muslims strength and power. The Prophet called him al-Faruk, that is, the instrument through which Allah separates truth from lies. That the Prophet called him so was one of the miracles of the Messenger. The reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab was the strengthening of truth and justice, he conquered many countries and spread Islam in them.
In the “Biography of the Prophet Muhammad,” Ibn Hisham quotes the words of Ibn Masud: “We did not have the opportunity to pray near the Kaaba until Umar accepted Islam. And having accepted Islam, he opposed the Quraish so that we could pray near the Kaaba, and we prayed with him." Umar was truthful to Allah in such a way that He put the truth in his mouth and heart, and until Allah inspired this in him, he was not one of those to whom the Almighty inspires. Tirmidhi reports from Ibn Umar, Ibn Majah and al-Hakim that the Messenger of Allah said: “Verily, Allah put the truth in the mouth and heart of Umar.”
Bukhari reported from Abu Hurayrah: “The Messenger of Allah said: “Among those who came before you were those who had inspiration from Allah. If there is one like this in my ummah, it will be Umar."
According to Bukhari and Muslim, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Oh, Ibn al-Khattab, I swear by the One in Whose hands my soul is, whenever the shaitan meets you walking along one of the gorges, he will go along another gorge."
We also find that the verses of the Quran were revealed by the Almighty to confirm the words and opinions of Umar. Thus, verses were revealed regarding his opinion on the prisoners taken at Badr, as well as in connection with the prayer at the station of Ibrahim (maqam Ibrahim) near the Kaaba, on the prohibition of intoxicating drinks, on wearing the hijab and regarding others important issues. All of them confirm his nickname al-Faruk, given to him by the Prophet. This fact also confirms that Allah put the truth in the mouth and heart of Umar.
When Umar ibn al-Khattab was caliph, he judged according to truth and justice, and his commitment to justice remained famous for centuries. Umar strengthened Islam and made the Islamic state powerful. His deeds confirm the words of the Almighty that (meaning) “To those of you who believed and did good deeds, Allah promised that He would certainly make them successors on earth, just as He made successors to those who came before them; and promised that He would strengthen their faith, which He approved for them."
The life of Umar ibn al-Khattab was similar to the life of the prophets and messengers. This is confirmed by the words of the Messenger of Allah himself, who said: “If there had been a prophet later, he would have been Umar ibn al-Khattab.” Umar ibn al-Khattab was very afraid of the wrath of the Almighty, he often cried, trembling before Him. He cared about following the sunnah of the Messenger of Allah and the path of the first righteous caliph Abu Bakr. He firmly adhered to truth and justice, was zealous for the religion of Allah, sought to improve the lives of Muslims, was knowledgeable in the Book of Allah, and was not afraid for the sake of Allah of reproaches from those who reproached him. In his quest for truth and justice, he went so far that one day, standing on the minbar, he said: “Oh, Muslims, what will you say if I lean towards this world so much?” and bowed his head. One man stood up and said: “We will correct you with a saber like this,” and ran his hand across his throat. Umar asked him: “Do you mean me?” He replied: “Yes, I meant you.” Then Umar said: “May Allah have mercy on you! Praise be to Allah, thanks to Whom there is someone in my flock who will correct me if I deviate!”
One day al-Akhnaf ibn Qays, the ruler of Iraq, came to Umar with a delegation. It was on a hot summer day, and the delegation found him wrapped in an aba and applying special oil to one of the camels intended for alms. Umar said: "Oh, Akhnaf, take off your clothes and help the Commander of the Faithful with this camel. This camel is alms, in it is the share of the orphan, the widow and the poor." One of the arrivals said: “May Allah forgive you, why don’t you command the slave collecting alms to do it for you?” Umar then asked: “And who is more of a slave than me and Akhnaf? I am a slave, responsible for alms just like Akhnaf. The duty of the one entrusted with the affairs of Muslims is also what a slave is obliged to do for his master in advising Muslims and carrying out assignments."
One day, while at home and taking refuge from the incredible heat, Usman ibn Affan saw a man leading two camels. The day was so hot that Uthman thought: “What is wrong with him? Why doesn’t he stay in Medina until the cool of the evening sets in, and then go on his way?” Uthman said to his freedman: “Look who it is.” He replied: “I see a man with a cape tied around his head. He is leading two young camels.” Soon the man approached. He turned out to be Umar ibn al-Khattab - the Commander of the Faithful. Then Uthman asked him: “What brings you to this hour?” Umar replied: “Two lagging young camels, intended for alms. I want to bring them to pasture. I was afraid that they would disappear and Allah would ask me for them.” Uthman said: "Go into the shade and drink water. We will relieve you of this task and send someone who will do it for you." Umar said: “Go to your place.” But Usman continued: “We have someone who will do this for you.” However, Umar was unshakable and set off on his journey. Then Uthman said: “Whoever wants to look at a strong, trustworthy person, let him look at him!”
There are many stories about Umar's dedication to serving his flock and establishing truth and justice. History has never known a caliph who served people as sincerely, honestly and fairly as Umar did. At the same time, he was ascetic and was content with the least. He ate cakes made only from wholemeal flour, wore rough clothes and often said: “We know better the delicacy of food than many who eat it, but we reserve it for the day when every nursing mother has forgotten her baby, and every one who bears a burden, will lose his child."
Jabir ibn Abdullah al-Ansari reported: “Once Umar ibn al-Khattab saw me carrying meat.” "What is this, Jabir?" - he asked. I replied: “I wanted meat, so I bought it.” “Whatever you want, will you buy? Are you not afraid of the verse that says that “for everyone there will be a degree of reward according to their deeds, so that He will fully reward them for their actions, and there will be no injustice to them?” "
Umar ibn al-Khattab was also an excellent military leader. He sent troops to take the cities of the Persians and Byzantines, where people subsequently accepted Islam. During his reign, Iraq and Isfahan were taken, cities in Ash-Sham and Egypt were conquered. During his era, the greatest battles in the history of Islam took place: the Battle of Yarmouk, al-Qadisiyya, Nahavand and others. The Commander of the Faithful, Umar ibn al-Khattab, sent troops from Medina, appointed leaders and determined military plans. The great achievements of Umar eclipsed the military successes of other great commanders and heroes of history.
Against this great man, the enemies of Islam could do nothing but a cowardly attack: they sent a fire-worshipping slave named Abu Lulua, and during the morning prayer, standing behind Umar, he stabbed him several times in the back. So the second righteous caliph fell by the death of a shahid. This marked the end of one of the most important stages of Islamic history.
May Allah have mercy on the Commander of the Faithful, Umar! His adoption of Islam became a help for Muslims, and the period of his reign was their victory, he strengthened the foundations of the Islamic state, made it powerful, suppressing its enemies. May the Almighty reward him with the best reward from the entire Muslim Ummah!
Among the most revered and authoritative Muslims in the history of Islam, Umar al-Faruk ibn al-Khattab (r.a.) is often mentioned. He is the second righteous caliph (after Abu Bakr), and his whole life after accepting the religion of Allah was aimed at strengthening it.
Umar ibn al-Khattab (r.a.) was born in Mecca in 585 (according to Miladi). He had two nicknames. The first is al-Faruk, which was given to him by the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) himself when Umar (r.a.) converted to Islam. This nickname can be translated as “distinguishing between true and false.” The second name, Abu Hafs, represents the traditional Arab use of the names of their eldest children. The daughter of Umar bore the name Hafs; she later became the wife of Muhammad (s.g.w.).
Biography of Umar
Umar (ra) was not one of the first Muslims. Even before becoming a righteous believer, he had great authority among the residents of Mecca, which, among other things, was based on his very tough and stern disposition. At the same time, the Grace of the Worlds Muhammad (s.g.w.) often said a special prayer in which he asked the Almighty to enrich the community of believers so strong spirit a person like Umar ibn al-Khattab (r.a.). As a result, he is in the sixth year from the beginning of the prophetic mission of Muhammad (s.g.w.).
By this time, about forty men and more than a dozen women had become Muslims. But before, Umar (ra) often spoke out against the faithful. Moreover, he somehow thought about killing the Final Messenger of the Almighty (s.g.v.) due to the fact that through his activities he contributed to the renunciation of the Meccans from the religion of their ancestors. Actually, it was precisely when Umar (ra) intended to commit a terrible crime that he came across a man named Nuaim ibn Abdullah, who told him that his sister Fatima and her husband Zeid had converted to Islam. Getting seriously angry, he went to their house and found them memorizing Surah “Ta Ha”, after which he severely beat them both. As soon as the anger subsided, Umar (ra) decided to inquire what exactly his relatives were studying. Taking the scroll with the text of Surah “Ta Ha”, he began to read it until he reached the 14th verse:
“Verily, I am Allah! There is no god but Me. So worship Me and perform prayer so that you remember Me" (20:14)
This verse made a great impression on Umar (r.a.), he immediately went to the house of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.). Seeing him, Umar (r.a.) fell to his knees and said the words of the Shahada. This scene shocked the Muslims. They began to pronounce the takbir so loudly that it could be heard near the al-Haram mosque, on the territory of which there were then idols perceived by the Meccans as deities.
Virtues of the 2nd Righteous Caliph
Let us give several examples of how highly the status of Umar ibn al-Khattab (r.a.) is valued by Muslims.
1. In the collections of hadiths of Bukhari and Muslim there is a saying belonging to the son of Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) - Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. It contains the following story: “Once I asked my father - who is the best of the believers after the Final Messenger of the Almighty (s.g.v.)? He replied that such a person is. Then I asked about who, after him, occupies this status. The father said that this is Umar (r.a.). Then I asked if he himself, my father, was following Umar (r.a.). He stated that he was simply one of the believers.”
2. In the collection of Imam Ahmad there is a hadith similar in content. From Abu Juhaifa al-Savi the words of Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) are quoted. He asked people who is the best Muslim after the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.). When no one could answer this question, Ali (ra) called Abu Bakr (ra) as such. After this, he said: “Should I tell you who is the best representative of the Muslim Ummah after Abu Bakr? This is Umar."
3. The fact that the Final Messenger of God (s.g.v.) himself performed a prayer asking Umar (ra.a.) to strengthen the Muslim community speaks volumes. There is, in particular, such a very remarkable hadith: “After Umar became a Muslim, the Islamic Ummah never lost its majestic position” (at-Tirmidhi).
4. Thanks to the fact that such an authoritative Meccan as Umar (r.a.) became a member of the Muslim community, Muslims came out of hiding and began to be more active in calling (dagwat).
5. Hadith collectors Ahmad and at-Tirmidhi cite the following saying of the Grace of the Worlds of Muhammad (s.g.w.): “If after me another messenger was sent to this world, then it would certainly be Umar.”
Umar ibn al-Khattab (r.a.) died in 23 Hijra (644 Miladi). He was then 63 years old. The cause of death was stabbings inflicted by Abu Lulua al-Majusi. The murder of the second righteous caliph is probably connected with his policy towards the Persian Empire (the Sassanid state). He was buried in Medina, not far from the graves of Muhammad (s.g.w.) himself and the first caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (r.a.).
The reign of Umar (r.a.) lasted more than ten years and is considered one of the most effective in terms of realizing state and public interests.
Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman and Ali, who after the death of the Prophet Muhammad led the Muslim community for almost 30 years and, even during the life of the prophet, took part in one way or another in the activities of the community, and were also connected with the prophet by blood or marriage.
In subsequent centuries, the reign of the Rightly Guided Caliphs was called the "Golden Age" of Islam, when the original Muslim virtues flourished, and the caliphs themselves were given the title " ar-rashidun“- walking the righteous path, in order to distinguish them from those who came to power in different provinces of the once united Muslim state.
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
(born in 572, reigned 632–644) - a successful Meccan merchant, was one of the first who immediately and unconditionally believed Muhammad and began to help him. He spared no expense for the needs of the Muslim community. One of his expenses was the ransom of slaves, the release of whom he set the only condition - their acceptance of Islam. It was he who accompanied Muhammad when the prophet decided to move to Medina (622), having learned about the conspiracy against him. To confuse their pursuers, Muhammad and Abu Bakr spent three days in a cave on Mount Saur near the road leading to Yemen, waiting for their pursuers to return to Mecca.
In Medina, Abu Bakr married his daughter to the prophet. He looked after Muhammad in every possible way and accompanied him on military campaigns. In the ninth year of the Hegira (630–631), Muhammad entrusted Abu Bakr with the leadership of the pilgrims to Mecca. At the end of Muhammad's life, Abu Bakr sometimes led Friday prayers.
When Muhammad, leaving no male heir, died (August 632) muhajirun(Muslim Meccans who moved to Medina) and Ansar(the Medinians who converted to Islam) could not decide who to choose as Muhammad's successor. Umar ibn al-Khattab, one of the prophet's companions, reminded those present of the role played by Abu Bakr during the life of the prophet and was the first to extend his hand to him for the oath. Everyone else followed his example.
A reasonable and not vain man, Abu Bakr invited the closest companions of the prophet, Umar ibn al-Khattab, as well as Abu Ubaydah, a warrior who was better versed in military matters, to manage the community.
The reign of Abu Bakr coincided with the period called ridda(“falling away” - Arabic), because after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, some tribes considered themselves free from contractual obligations and refused to pay taxes. Abu Bakr managed to suppress tribal separatism and restore Muslim possessions in Arabia. Under him, a regular army began to form, and Arab troops advanced to the borders of Iran. In 633, Abu Bakr sent an army to the Byzantine borders, considering the annexation of Byzantine lands to be the fulfillment of the prophet's will. At the same time, Arabs appeared in Southern Palestine and Mesopotamia. The conquered cities signed an agreement under which the townspeople were obliged to pay a poll tax of a dinar for each adult male. The Arab historian al-Balazuri (812–892) wrote that Abu Bakr, seeing off the soldiers on a campaign, admonished them with the words: “When you meet the enemy, and Allah gives you victory, do not be angry and do not mutilate the bodies of your enemies. Don't be treacherous, but don't be a coward either. Do not kill a child, an old man, or a woman. Don't burn palm trees, don't cut them down fruit trees, do not slaughter more cattle than is required for food... You will pass by people in their cells (i.e. monks - author) who say that they have dedicated themselves to God, leave them alone...".
In the summer of 634 Muslim troops approached Damascus. But the news of the beginning of the conquest of Syria found Abu Bakr on his deathbed. He decided to appoint his successor himself in order to rid the community of strife. He called Umar ibn Khattab the most worthy.
Umar (Omar I) ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk (born in 585, reigned 634–644) - the second of the “righteous caliphs”. He converted to Islam in 661, 4 years before the Hijra. According to legend, at first he was opposed to Muslims, but after he became acquainted with the text of Surah “Ta ha” (Sura 20, cm. QURAN) which his sister gave him, wanted to meet Muhammad. After this meeting, he became one of the most loyal supporters of the prophet.
During the Medina period, Umar became famous for his courage, took part in the main battles of the Muslims (at the Badr well - in 624 and at the Hills ( Uhud) – in 625). Then he became an adviser to Muhammad, and over time became related to him: his daughter Khavsa married the prophet after her first husband died in battle.
All biographers of Umar noted his selflessness and honesty. A lot of money passed through his hands at that time, but he himself did not strive to get rich. Muslim tradition also preserves numerous references to Umar’s modesty and piety.
Caliph Umar is credited with creating the administrative system that formed the basis for the management of the future Muslim state. In 641 a register was created ( sofa al-mukatila), on the basis of which members of the prophet's family, his companions and participants in the Muslim conquests ( futuh) received an annual allowance. When the scribes wrote the name of Umar at the head of the list, he himself put Aisha, the beloved wife of the late Muhammad, in first place, offering her an allowance of 12 thousand dirhams annually.
Under Umar, a tax system was created that operated throughout the state. The system separated Muslims and Christians, winners and losers, not only by the size of taxes, but also by a whole list of prohibitions. Thus, the punishment for ridiculing the prophet and his faith was specifically stipulated. It was forbidden to touch a Muslim woman, to attack the life and property of Muslims, to harbor enemies of Islam, etc. In addition, non-Muslims were required to “distinguish themselves in dress” from Muslims; they were not allowed to build dwellings higher than the houses of the faithful, drink wine in public, openly wear crosses, have weapons, ride horses, etc.
In 637–638, a new chronology system was introduced, in which the hijra of the prophet was taken as the basis. At first it was a question of dating the correspondence, but then in the minds of Muslims there was a division of historical memory into the period before Islam ( jahiliyya) and after the adoption of Islam - from the first year of the Hijra (622).
Thanks to Umar, the foundations of the legal system were laid, and judges acted in a number of cities - cadi, which resolved conflicts and disputes on the basis of Islamic institutions. In particular, punishments for drunkenness and adultery for women were legalized.
In the conquered lands, Umar began to organize military camps ( amsar). In different parts of the caliphate, urban settlements of a new type arose, where the quarter was occupied by warriors of the same detachment (as a rule, people from the same tribe). There were such garrisons in Fustat (now a region of Cairo), Kufa, and Mosul.
At the proposal of the caliph, urban construction was carried out according to Byzantine principles: the width of the main streets should have been 40 cubits (cubit - 38-46 cm), and secondary streets - 20-30 cubits. The Caliph paid much attention to the development of crafts and trade. He believed that the craft of a merchant is no less complex than military affairs, for “Shaitan tries to seduce an honest merchant with easy profits by deceiving the buyer.”
When Egypt was conquered, Umar was informed that this area could supply wheat to other areas of the caliphate. But the problem of grain transportation had to be solved. The Caliph was reminded that during the time of Emperor Trajan (at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD), a canal was built connecting the Nile and the Red Sea. The canal was subsequently abandoned and filled in. Umar ordered to clear the canal bed, and the bread from the Nile granary flowed into Arabia along the shortest route.
During the period of famine (639), which struck Palestine, Syria and Iraq, by order of the caliph, food began to be delivered from other provinces. The following year, the Caliph temporarily abolished zakat(annual tax for the benefit of the poor).
Umar was also involved in religious affairs. In particular, under him the ritual was finally recognized hajj(cm. FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM), which became one of the five mandatory principles of faith. Umar himself led the annual pilgrimage. By order of the Caliph former secretary Prophet Zayd ibn Thabit began collecting scattered texts of revelations recorded from the words of Muhammad. The text of the Koran was finally canonized after the death of Umar.
The campaigns of conquest under Umar continued successfully. In 633 Southern Palestine fell, then Hira. In September 635, after a six-month siege, Damascus capitulated, and a year later, after the defeat of the Byzantines at the Yarmouk River, Syria passed into the hands of the Muslims. The conquest of Syria became possible due to the fact that Byzantium, exhausted by the war with Iran, could no longer maintain sufficient border troops.
The situation in Iran was similar: the country was weakened by the political and religious intolerance of the old Sassanid dynasty, the raids of the Turks and Khazars, and the war with the Byzantine Empire. In 636–637, the greatest battle in Arab history took place at Qadisiya: Muslim troops defeated the Persian army. Later, Madain (modern Ctesiphon in Iraq), the summer residence of the Persian king, fell. These victories predetermined the final conquest of Iran. At the same time, the Arabs captured the Mosul area, reached the capital of Armenia and plundered it.
However, at that moment, Umar suspended the campaigns of Arab warriors in the East, believing that the time had not yet come to conquer Iran. Subsequently, the Iranians called Caliph Umar a usurper, and the day of his death began to be celebrated as a holiday.
Two years after the conquest of Upper Mesopotamia, which was carried out from Syria, the Arabs invaded Persia and were victorious at Nehavend (642). Yazdigert III, the last sovereign of the Sassanid dynasty, retreated to the northeast, but was killed in Merv (651). His successor's attempts to revive the empire were unsuccessful.
In 639, Arab troops under the command of the Arab commander Amr ibn al-As crossed the Egyptian border. The moment was chosen: the country was torn apart by religious strife, the population hated the Byzantine rulers. Ibn al-As reached the walls of Babylon (a fortress on the outskirts of Cairo), and in 642 Alexandria, the key point of Byzantium in Egypt, passed into the hands of the Muslims. True, four years later the Byzantines tried to recapture it, but the Arabs held the city. The burning of the Alexandrian library, allegedly carried out at the same time on the orders of Caliph Umar, is most likely a legend.
Under Caliph Umar, Muslim troops captured Jerusalem. The Caliph himself went to Palestine to determine the size of the captured trophies and assign salaries to the soldiers. There are many legends about Umar's stay in Jerusalem, but all the chroniclers say that the caliph was dissatisfied with the behavior of the military leaders, who abandoned the ascetic lifestyle and met the caliph in Byzantine clothes. According to legend, it was then that the Caliph chose the site for the construction of the famous temple “Kubbat al-Sakhra” (Arab. dome of the rock).
Umar enjoyed unquestioned authority among Askhabov(initially - the companions of the prophet, later the circle expanded to include everyone who at least once saw Muhammad with their own eyes), his orders were carried out strictly, although in the Arab chronicles there is information that he gave his advisers greater freedom of action. He had not only energy, but also the ability to use circumstances, people and their religious enthusiasm. The style of rule of Caliph Umar can be called authoritarian, but he did not reach the point of tyranny.
During the reign of Umar, the character of the Muslim state changed. As a result of conquest and reasonable management, it turned into a multinational empire, of which only a quarter came from Arabia. And since the annexed provinces were more high level social and economic development, than the political center of the Hejaz Caliphate, the Muslim aristocracy began to move to the conquered lands.
Many of Umar's companions proposed dividing the land of the new provinces among the warriors, but he refused to do this, citing the fact that the land also belonged to “those who come after us.” He introduced payment of salaries ( "ata") and food rations ( rizq) to all warriors. Under him, land cadastres began to be formed, which provided different kinds land ownership: communal and private.
Umar added the title of Caliph to the title Amir al-Muaminin(Commander of the Faithful). Thus, the system of power that Umar created can be characterized as an Arab-Muslim theocracy. The population was divided into two classes - the ruling Muslims and the subordinate peoples who adhered to a different faith. Methods of government were argued by divine revelation or based on precedent. All this was supposed to ensure religious integrity Ummah(Muslim community).
In November 644, during morning prayers in the mosque, the Persian slave Fairuz, nicknamed Abu Lula, stabbed Umar in the stomach (before this, Fairuz had complained to the caliph about his master, but Umar did not heed his complaint). Umar died three days later, but first appointed a council that was to elect a new caliph. One of his last instructions was to instruct the future caliph not to remove the provincial governors he had appointed during the year.
The ten-year reign of Umar became the time of the victorious march of Islam. At the same time, the foundations of national and religious unity were laid. Historical tradition does not skimp on praise for Umar, considering him an ideal ruler, unpretentious in everyday life, a pious Muslim, fair and honest towards his subordinates, merciless towards the enemies of Islam.
After the death of Umar, the council of six high-ranking Muslims appointed by him had to decide on a successor. During the election of the new caliph, supporters of the Banu Umayya clan, who thirsted for revenge, won. IN early period During the activities of Muhammad, it was representatives of this clan, fearing the loss of their positions in Mecca, who pursued Muhammad, forcing him to move to Medina. The candidate they put forward for the place of caliph, Uthman, did not possess the creative energy that was inherent in his predecessor. However, the election of another candidate, Ali, according to the council, promised turbulent times, since the latter was known for his straightforwardness and assertiveness.
Uthman ibn Affan
(years of life – 575–656, reign – 644–656) – the third caliph from the galaxy of “righteous”. He belonged to those Meccans who converted to Islam several years before Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina. Among the first followers of Muhammad, he did not stand out in any way. But he came from a wealthy family of Banu Umayya, who occupied a high position among the trading aristocracy of the city. Despite the fact that the Banu Umayya were at enmity with Muhammad, the prophet married his daughter Ruqaiya to Usman, and when she died, the prophet invited his son-in-law to marry his other daughter, Umm Kalthum.
Some historians suggest that during the Medina period, Muhammad used Uthman's family connections in order to know about the state of affairs in Mecca, which he abandoned. Allegedly, thanks to the activities of Uthman, the number of sympathizers with Islam in Mecca was constantly growing. And when Muhammad decided to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and the city authorities closed the gates in front of him and his sacrificial camels, it was Uthman who went to the city to negotiate. With his help, an agreement was concluded between the Meccans and Muhammad's caravan, acceptable to both parties: Muslims were invited to perform the Hajj to Mecca the following year with prior notification to the city authorities. To avoid clashes, they even promised to leave the city for a while.
Contrary to the advice of his predecessor Caliph Umar, Uthman did not retain the posts of the governors and military leaders for a year, but immediately began appointing his relatives to these posts. This displeased many high-ranking Muslims. Nevertheless, many of the institutions introduced by Umar were preserved, and conquest expeditions continued. North Africa was conquered by Muslims, and raids were carried out on the territory of Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea.
Uthman and his relatives, who received high positions in the provinces, developed a taste for luxury. His relatives widely used their position for personal enrichment. It is characteristic that under Uthman, people from the prophet’s inner circle, but not related to him by blood, were deprived of privileges, for Uthman put blood ties above merit to the Muslim community. Thus, he returned to the old, tribal traditions, abolishing the democratic principles laid down by Muhammad himself.
In the sixth year of Uthman's reign, signs of trouble appeared; the difference in the standard of living of the metropolis and the province became more noticeable. The cities that had once belonged to Byzantium, captured by the Arabs, continued to flourish, and the center of the caliphate, Medina, turned into a backwater. A significant part of the taxes and spoils remained in the hands of the governors. The authorities mistreated the local population, who were often forced to move to uncultivated lands and re-dig canals and new wells.
At the end of 649, by order of the Caliph, a mosque in the town of Quba, built in memory of Muhammad's move to Medina, was demolished. From that moment on, active criticism of Usman’s actions began. The voices of those who believed that the place of caliph (deputy of the prophet) could only be taken by a person from the family of Muhammad, that is, Ali, his cousin and husband of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, became increasingly louder.
Muslim historians, describing the actions of Uthman, give him credit for codifying the Koran. It was on his orders that a single set of revelations recorded during the life of Muhammad was compiled. The work, which began under Caliph Umar, entered a new stage: the collected texts had to be compared, the most reliable ones selected and compiled into a single collection. After this, the best calligraphers rewrote the text in four copies, one kept in Medina, the second in Basra, the third in Baghdad and the fourth in Kufa. All subsequent lists were made on the basis of these canonical collections. It was then that Muslims received their holy scripture, on the basis of which laws were subsequently formed.
The image of Uthman is very controversially depicted in Arab chronicles. His activities as the secular and religious head of the Arabs have caused different assessments. And although the state continued to expand due to more and more new conquests, Uthman himself did not possess the necessary rigidity and determination to keep everything happening in the caliphate under control. Meanwhile, tension grew. The division of Muslim society into the very rich, living in luxury (which did not exist under Abu Bakr, Umar, and even more so under Muhammad), and the overwhelming majority of the population, vegetating on the brink of poverty, became sharply apparent. This latent tension, which Umar held back, under Uthman resulted in an open split in the state.
Attempts by the prophet's companions to explain to Uthman the harmfulness of relying only on their relatives and thereby stop corruption in the caliphate were unsuccessful. In January 656, a group of Egyptians (about 500 people) came to Medina, where they wanted to meet with the Caliph to express dissatisfaction with the behavior of the Caliph's viceroy in Egypt. They were joined by walkers from Iraq. Uthman had to enter into negotiations with them and even sign an obligation in which, as on the day of his proclamation as caliph, he promised that “he will be faithful to the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet” ( cm. SUNNAH). When the intercessors set off on their way back, they were overtaken by a messenger from Uthman, who was supposed to convey to the governor of Egypt an order to punish the dissatisfied. They intercepted the message and returned to Medina. Here they camped around the caliph's house. Uthman first tried to blame his brother Merwan, who supposedly sent the messenger, but the Egyptians showed the caliph his seal on the message. They also demanded that Mervan be extradited.
Gradually, the crowd of dissatisfied people around Uthman's house grew, and the caliph found himself under siege. When the news came that troops called by Uthman from Syria were approaching the city, the besiegers launched an assault. At the time of his death, Usman had a copy of the Koran in his hands, on the pages of which his blood spilled.
The murder of Uthman subsequently led to civil strife, which is why in later sources it was called al-bab al-maftuh, that is, “the door open (to civil war).”
Ali ibn Abu Talib -
The fourth and last Rightly Guided Caliph (b. 602, reigned 656–661) is a key figure in understanding the Sunni-Shia Muslim divide. He was not only a comrade-in-arms, but also a close relative - cousin - of the Prophet Muhammad. Ali was the second (after Khadija, the first wife of the prophet) to convert to Islam. Orphaned at an early age, Muhammad was brought up with him in the house of his uncle and father, Ali Abu Talib, who was the merchant foreman of Mecca until 619. After moving to Medina, Ali married Muhammad's daughter Fatima. Muhammad was extremely attached to his daughter's family, especially his grandchildren Hasan and Hussein.
During the Medina period, Ali participated in all campaigns and battles of the Muslims and distinguished himself with courage. Later, Shiite historiography recorded a lot of legends about the exploits of Ali, which portrayed him as the hero of the Iranian epic.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Ali, supported by Fatima, assumed that it was he, as the closest blood relative, who would become the head of the Muslim community. However, this did not happen. But later, against the backdrop of general dissatisfaction with Usman’s policies, many supported his candidacy. His election took place very quickly, but in the absence of some of the prophet’s companions and members of his family, who at that moment were outside Medina (including those who could lay claim to the post of caliph). This circumstance subsequently served as a pretext for some of them - Talha and Zubair (companions of the prophet; in addition, Zubair was the nephew of Khadija, the first wife of Muhammad), supported by the widow of the prophet Aisha, acted as rivals to Ali and laid claim to power.
Ali was fanatically devoted to the cause of Muhammad, but did not hold any office before his election. He was respected among the veterans of Islam, but the governors appointed by Uthman felt that he was a threat to their power. Mu'awiya ibn Sufyan, the governor of the Syrian province, Uthman's cousin, declared Ali to be a participant in the conspiracy against the deceased caliph and spoke out against him under the slogan “revenge for Uthman.”
In December 656, near Basra (Iraq), a battle took place between the troops led by Talha and Zubeir and the army of Ali. In the history of Islam, this battle is known as the “camel battle.” She was watched by the widow of the prophet Aisha, sitting on a camel in a special palanquin. According to ancient Arabian tradition, this was supposed to bring good luck. However, Ali won the battle.
The following year (657), another significant battle took place on the right bank of the Euphrates River near the city of Siffin. This time Ali defeated the Syrian army, but failed to take advantage of the victory. When it became clear that Ali would win, the Syrians proposed to resolve the matter by arbitration. As a sign of reconciliation, they raised sheets (or scrolls) of the Koran on their spears. Ali stopped the battle by agreeing with the Syrians. The idea of resolving the dispute over power with the help of the Koran was impeccable from the point of view of piety, but impossible in practice.
Ali's decision disappointed both his supporters and veterans of Islam, who wanted to end provincial separatism once and for all. It is characteristic that several possible candidates for election as caliph arrived at the meeting of representatives of the warring parties.
An analysis of the negotiations that took place indicates that civil strife was brewing in the caliphate. Some of Ali's supporters stated that they did not recognize the arbitration court, saying La tahkim illa lilahi– “Only God has the right to judge” (Arabic). They believed that Ali had no right to agree to arbitration, especially since victory was on his side, which was considered as the favor of Allah. As a sign of their disagreement, several military leaders left Ali's camp, taking 12 thousand warriors with them. They began to be called Kharijites (from Arabic Kharaja- “to leave”, “to leave”, in in this case- “lost obedience”). Subsequently, the Kharijite movement, initially political, acquired a religious character. Those who remained faithful to Ali began to be called shia(Arabic for “supporters”, “party”) ( cm. SHIITES). However, Ali's sincere supporters were clearly not enough to successfully fight Mu'awiya. Feeling his superiority, Mu'awiya sent troops to conquer Egypt.
Regretting what had happened, Ali called on his soldiers, including the Kharijites, to return to the battlefield. However, they hesitated and on July 17, 658 they were defeated by Ali’s troops.
At the same time, the collapse of the caliphate began. Following the loss of Egypt, the Arabs living in Fars refused to pay taxes, and some of the Arabs who originally professed Christianity returned to their faith. Mu"awiya, who closely monitored the situation around Ali, began to raid the border regions of Iraq and Arabia. Ali tried to resist him, but he had difficulty collecting volunteers and funds to maintain the army. In July 659, Mu"awiya, realizing that Ali loses authority among his supporters, declared himself caliph in Jerusalem, the third most important city for Muslims. After this, his troops attacked several Iraqi cities and plundered them. In response to this, Ali called on people loyal to him to jihad against Mu'awiya.
However, the extermination of the Kharijites by Ali's troops changed the attitude of the residents of Kufa, where Ali's headquarters were located, towards him. He was killed by the Kharijite ibn Mulj on January 22, 661 on the threshold of a mosque in Kufa.
Historians disagree about Ali's role in the formation of the Muslim state. It is obvious that he did not have the administrative talent and political acumen needed to manage a Muslim empire. But the image of a “knight without fear or reproach,” who, despite all adversity, remained honest and faithful to Islam, has been preserved for centuries. His tragic death, as well as the death of his descendants, created for him the aura of a martyr.
The Shiite movement that emerged after his death initially found support in Iraqi patriotism, and then spread to Iran. Here the image of Ali acquired the features of a Persian hero; he is revered as a holy martyr. If among the Sunnis Ali remains a model of piety and nobility, then among the Shiites there is a cult of Ali. His figure sometimes overshadows the image of the Prophet Muhammad, since extreme Shiites believe that it is Ali who is the bearer of God's grace (Arab. barracks), – absolute and infallible authority in the affairs of Islam, the owner of all the virtues that Allah can bestow on a person. Ali's supporters call him " Vali Allah"(Arabic: "friend of Allah").
Through the efforts of the Shiites, collections of Ali’s sayings, as well as his “life” - Akhbar Ali.
Some suras of the Koran are interpreted differently by Shiites than by Sunnis. Shiites consider the latest edition of the Koran to be flawed, since, in their opinion, Zeid ibn Thabit, at the instigation of Caliph Uthman and his relatives the Umayyads, removed all references to Ali from the text of revelations.
Ali is credited with numerous military exploits. Some legends about the exploits and miracles performed by Ali are reminiscent of the lives of Christian saints. For example, the legend that he allegedly implanted the severed hand of a slave who repented of his act. They also talk about special treatment Allah to Ali: supposedly Allah himself delayed the sunset so that Ali could perform the evening prayer...
Olga Bibikova
Literature:
Masse A. Islam. M., “Science”, 1982
Tabari. La Chronique. Histoire des prophe"tes et des rois. (volume II). P., "Thesaurus"/"Actes sud"/"Sindbad", 1983
Grünebaum von, G.E. Classic Islam. 600–1258. M., “Science”, 1988
Bolshakov O.G. History of the Caliphate. vol. II (The Age of Great Conquests), vol. III (Between two civil wars). M., Publishing house "Nauka", 1993, 1998
Muller A. History of Islam. M., “Astrel”, 2004
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (d. 13/634)- the closest companion and friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), an outstanding public and political figure, the first righteous caliph. The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) called him `Abdullah, al-Atiq and al-Siddiq. Came from the Time tribe. Born 2 years before the year of the Elephant (572). His father's name was Abu Kuhafa Usman, his mother was Umm al-Khair Salma.
Abu Bakr was one of the first to accept Islam and devoted his entire life to its ideals. He was a respectable person, engaged in the clothing and fabric trade. He made a large fortune of 40,000 dirhams, which he spent entirely on the needs of the Muslim community.
He was a close friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and did not part with him. When solving many vital problems, the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) often consulted Abu Bakr. The Arabs even called him “the Prophet’s vizier.”
From the very beginning of the prophecy of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), Abu Bakr believed his every word. For example, when the Chosen One of God (peace and blessings be upon him) announced that he had traveled in one night from Mecca to al-Quds (Jerusalem), from where his famous ascension of Isra and Mi'raj took place, Abu Bakr was the first to announce that he believed every word of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), for which he called him al-Siddiq (“faithful”).
While still in Mecca, Abu Bakr made great efforts to develop the Muslim community, did charity work, helped the needy, and ransomed slaves whom the pagans had subjected to torture. When the persecution began, the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) decided to send Abu Bakr to Ethiopia, where a significant part of Muslims emigrated.
He set out on the road, but on the way he met one of the influential tribal leaders, Ibn Dukunna, who took him under his protection, and they returned to Mecca together. Then Abu Bakr refused to profess his faith in secret and continued his active work, losing the patronage of Ibn Dukunna because of this.
13 years after the beginning of the prophetic activity of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), the hijra (migration) of Muslims from Mecca to Medina began. One of the last to leave Mecca was the Prophet himself (peace and blessings be upon him), who went to Medina with Abu Bakr. Together they hid from the pagans pursuing them in the Saur cave. This episode is reflected in the verse of the Koran: “Here they were both in the cave, and he said to his companion: “Do not be sad, for Allah is with us” (9:40).
In Medina, Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) became related to Abu Bakr by marrying his daughter Aisha. Abu Bakr participated in all important affairs of the community, laying the foundations of Muslim statehood, took part in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaybar, Hunayn and other battles. At the Battle of Badr he fought with his son Abd ar-Rahman, who remained a pagan and opposed the Muslims.
When the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) could no longer lead collective prayers due to health reasons, he entrusted them to Abu Bakr, and this circumstance became one of the decisive ones in electing him as the first caliph, since leadership in the divine work (prayer) ), transmitted by the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), meant guidance in earthly affairs.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) in 11/632, the Ansars (mainly Khazraj), concerned future fate young Muslim state, urgently gathered in the sakif (under the canopy) of the Medina family of Banu Sa'id and advocated for the nomination of Sa'd ibn Ubada as caliph. Having learned about the meeting of the Ansars, Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattab and Abu Ubaidah Amir ibn al-Jarrah urgently arrived there and convinced the Ansars that the Muhajirs were also interested in further strengthening the state and ensuring the safety of its citizens.
The Ansars agreed to choose a caliph from the representatives of the Quraish tribe, as was bequeathed by the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Abu Bakr proposed the candidacy of Umar ibn al-Khattab, but Umar and Abu `Ubaidah said that Abu Bakr himself was most worthy of the title of successor to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). 12 Rabi (I) 11 AH. Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph. The next day, Abu Bakr took the oath of the people in the mosque of Medina.
One of Abu Bakr's greatest merits as caliph was the preservation and strengthening of Muslim statehood. The leaders of many tribes in Arabia were interested in pre-Islamic tribal fragmentation and refused to submit to the central government and pay taxes, including zakat.
Separatist actions were regarded as apostasy (ridda). In various regions of Arabia, false prophets became more active - Musailima, Tulayha, al-Aswad, Sajah. Abu Bakr took a decisive position in the fight against apostates, refused any compromises and started a war, as a result of which all anti-state protests were suppressed, and the Caliphate became a united and strong state capable of repelling any external aggression.
Success in the wars against the apostates allowed Muslims to begin military operations in Iraq and Syria against the Persian and Byzantine troops, who did not want the strengthening of the Muslim state and actively supported the apostates.
The Muslim army defeated the Persians in Iraq. In Syria, the troops of the Caliphate approached the Yarmouk River, where a battle took place with large forces of the Byzantine Empire.
In the midst of the Battle of Yarmouk, the Muslim army received news of the death of Abu Bakr. He was buried near the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Before his death, he bequeathed the post of head of state to Umar ibn al-Khattab.
Even as caliph, Abu Bakr led a very modest lifestyle, having only a meager salary from the state treasury and a plot of land near Medina. According to his will, 1/5 of this plot was transferred to the state as a donation, and the remaining part was divided among his children. All personal property and remaining cash Abu Bakr also bequeathed to transfer it to the state treasury.
Abu Bakr is also credited with collecting the Koran into a single book.
The second righteous caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar ibn al-Khattab (d. 23/644)- the closest companion and friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), an outstanding public and political figure, the 2nd Righteous Caliph. Born approx. 585 in Mecca. Father - Khattab ibn Nufail, mother - Khantama. He was a shepherd, then took up trade, and became an influential man in Mecca. He was often invited to resolve various conflicts between tribes.
Umar had a stern character and at first took an irreconcilable position towards Muslims. He decided to kill the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) because he called on the people to move away from the faith of their ancestors, but he learned that his sister and brother-in-law also accepted Islam and found them reading the Koran. He beat them, but became interested in the verses of the Koran, read them, believed and accepted Islam. At the same time, he refused to profess his faith in secret, and immediately after his acceptance of Islam, Muslims for the first time performed a collective prayer near the Kaaba.
Umar was next to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) and provided his protection. Hijra was performed openly.
During the Medina period of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), Umar actively participated in all the affairs of the community, participated in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaibar and other battles, and became one of the leaders of the Muslim state. During the reign of Abu Bakr he was his main assistant. Before his death, Abu Bakr bequeathed the Caliphate to Umar. In 13/634 Umar became caliph; all Muslims unanimously supported him.
Umar was a consistent successor of the work of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and Abu Bakr. His outstanding personal qualities, talent, and skillful government led to the great successes of the Caliphate.
The power of the Caliphate extended to the Middle East, Iran, Egypt and part of the North. Africa. Thanks to these victories, the population of all these regions became familiar with Islam. Umar played an exceptional role in the spread of Islam and its transformation into a world religion. He was an expert in hadith and Islamic law (fiqh), and an interpreter of the Koran.
Killed as a result of a conspiracy by the Persian slave Firuz (Abu Lulu) in the month of Zulhija 23/644 while leading morning prayers. Before his death, he managed to order the convening of a Council to select a new caliph.
The third righteous caliph Uthman ibn Affan
Uthman ibn Affan (575–35/656)- an outstanding political and public figure, the 3rd righteous caliph, relative and companion of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Full name Uthman ibn Affan ibn Abu al-As ibn Umayya ibn Abdi al-Shams ibn Abd Manaf al-Qurayshi al-Umawi. Mother - Arwa bint Qurayz bint Rabia bint Habib bint Abd Shams.
Uthman was one of the first to convert to Islam. His uncle Hakam ibn Abu al-As tried to force his nephew to return to the pagan faith of his ancestors, but to no avail. Uthman married the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), Ruqayyya (perhaps even before the beginning of the prophetic mission of Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him). From this marriage, Usman had a son, Abdullah, who died in infancy.
During the period of persecution of Muslims, Uthman and his wife emigrated to Ethiopia, then he tried to return to Mecca, and together with other Muslims he made the hijra (migration) to Medina. There he took an active part in the formation of the Muslim state, in all battles, except for the Battle of Badr (due to the death of his wife; but the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) considered Usman to have taken part in the battle and allocated him part of the trophies). Then Uthman married another daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) - Umm Kulthum, which is why he began to be called Zu'n-Nurayn ("owner of 2 luminaries").
In 6 A.H. during the minor pilgrimage, Uthman acted as a parliamentarian to the Meccans; Due to his late return, rumors of his death spread, leading to an escalation of the situation and ultimately the signing of the Treaty of Khudaiba.
Uthman was a wealthy man, provided material support to Muslims, and covered most of the costs during the Muslim army’s campaign against Tabuk. Was next to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) during the Farewell Hajj.
During the reign of caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, Uthman actively supported them and provided them with assistance. After the assassination attempt on Umar in 23/644, by his order, he became part of the “Council of Six” and was elected caliph.
As a ruler, he became the successor of the work of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and the first caliphs. During his reign it was created special commission according to the final edition of the Koran and its copies were reproduced.
During the reign of Uthman, wars continued with the external enemies of the Caliphate and the expansion of its borders: Sasanian Iran was defeated, Cyprus, the territories of Syria and the North were annexed. Africa.
At the end of Uthman's reign, the internal political situation in the Caliphate became more complicated; Rebellious groups arose, dissatisfied with the abuses of some provincial governors. Anti-state propaganda led to open rebellion. Uthman refused to comply with the rebels' demands. 18 Zulhija 35 AH. the conspirators attacked Uthman and killed him. At the time of his death he was 82 years old.
The fourth righteous caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib
Ali ibn Abu Talib (died 40/661)- an outstanding political and public figure, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), his closest companion, the 4th Righteous Caliph. He was also called Abu Hasan, Abu Turab and Haydar. The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) called him Murtaza - “the one who deserves contentment, the chosen one,” and Maula (this word has many meanings, for example, “master”, “beloved”). During the Caliphate, Ali received the title Amir al-Mu'minin ("Commander of the Faithful").
His father was Abu Talib, his mother was Fatima bint Assad, and his grandfather was `Abd al-Muttalib. From an early age, Ali was close to the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), was one of the first to accept Islam (at the age of 10) and devoted his whole life to serving the ideals of Islam.
He did not leave the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) throughout the entire Meccan period of his life. When on the eve of the Hijrah the Meccans tried to kill the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), Ali, risking his life, took his place and diverted the attention of the conspirators, giving the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) the opportunity to travel to Medina.
Having left for Medina, Ali was next to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) in all his affairs. At the Battle of Badr (2 AH) he was the standard bearer of the Muslims. Immediately before the battle, he fought with one of the leaders of the Meccan pagans, Walid ibn Mughira, and killed him, then hastened to the aid of Abu Ubaydah and killed his opponent. For his heroism he was nicknamed “The Lion of Allah.” The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) gave him a sword with a forked blade - “Zulfiqar”. After the victory at Badr, a sword, shield and camel were given to him as a trophy.
After the Battle of Badr, he married Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). From this marriage 3 sons were born - Hasan, Husain and Muhsin, and 2 daughters - Zainab and Umm Kulthum.
In the Battle of Uhud (3 AH) he personally defended the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), and was wounded. He distinguished himself in battles with the Jews in the oasis of Khaibar (6 AH). During the conquest of Mecca, he was the standard-bearer of the Muslim army and, together with the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), crushed the idols of the Kaaba, then participated in the battles against the Hawazin and Saqif tribes (8 AH).
At the time of the election of Abu Bakr as the first caliph, Ali was busy preparing the funeral of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him).
Ali was distinguished not only for his fighting qualities, but also for his wisdom and learning. After the death of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), he contributed with all his might to the strengthening of the Caliphate and the development of Muslim society.
During the reign of Caliph Umar, he served as the supreme qadi (judge) of the Caliphate. Umar often consulted with him on various state issues and, leaving Medina, left Ali in his place.
Immediately before his death, Umar named Ali one of 6 candidates for the post of head of state.
During the reign of Caliph Uthman, he continued to act as the supreme judge. During the siege of Usman's house, he tried to avert danger from him and negotiated with the rebels, sending his sons Hassan and Husayn to protect the caliph.
After the assassination of Usman, Ali was offered to lead the state. He renounced power for a long time, but in 35/656 he became the 4th Righteous Caliph.
Ali came to power during the period civil war in the Caliphate: the people and companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) demanded immediate punishment of the killers of Uthman, while the rebels had sufficient military forces. Ali tried to gain the trust of all the companions and provincial rulers.
In 36 A.H. went to Basra, where the rebels were concentrated, to negotiate with the widow of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) Aisha and influential companions Talha and Zubair. The rebels provoked a domestic conflict between the parties, which led to a major battle called "Camel" (Jamal).
Despite the victory of Ali's troops, the political situation became even more complicated. Various groups in Egypt and Iraq opposed him. Caliph Ali met the most serious resistance in the person of the ruler of Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan, who refused to recognize him as caliph.
In the battle of Siffin (37 AH), the oppressed warriors of Mu'awiya skewered the sheets of the Koran on spears and called Ali to God's judgment. Ali agreed to submit to the decision of the arbitration court, but the trial ended inconclusively, and some of Ali's supporters moved away from him and formed the Kharijite sect, which opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya.
At the Battle of Nahrawan (38 AH), Ali defeated the main forces of the Kharijites, but was unable to completely eliminate the rebellion. The Kharijites increased their influence, penetrated into all spheres of social and political life of the Caliphate, including into Ali’s army, used the tactics of guerrilla warfare, conspiracies, and committed terrorist and sabotage actions.
Taking advantage of the split in Ali's camp, Mu'awiya took active action. In 38 A.H. his commander Amr ibn al-As captured Egypt in 39 AH. The Syrians occupied Iraq in 40 AH. Mu'awiya's troops entered the Hijaz and Yemen. Ali's army managed to stop the advance, but the caliph himself fell at the hands of the Kharijite Ibn Muljam, who avenged the defeat at Nahravan.
Ali is one of the best experts on the Koran, tafsir, hadith, and fiqh. He learned all these sciences directly from the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), who highly valued Ali as a capable and competent person.
Ali knew the entire Koran by heart and was one of the secretaries of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), memorized and wrote down the Revelations (wahy) received by Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Even after becoming the head of state, he did not give up his studies in science and encouraged its development, founded a school in Medina, and continued to issue legal regulations (fatwas).
Ali had many positive qualities, he was brave, fearless, he steadfastly endured hardships and hardships, he never lost heart or lost hope, he achieved his goal or fought to the last.