What is the psychology of deviant behavior. Methods for studying deviant behavior

19.11.2020

The human community (in broad and narrow senses) lives in a system of action of certain well-defined and well-established rules and conventions that arise as a result of its development. That is, in any society there are some average norms of behavior. Going beyond these norms is the essence of deviant behavior.

It should be noted that deviant behavior can have both narrowly negative (destructive) and positive ones, aimed at overcoming social norms and standards that do not correspond to the development of society. Often such forms are socially creative manifestations that contribute to significant qualitative changes in the social environment and the system of relationships.

Deviant behavior of a person is a personal-social choice in a situation where the goals of a person's social actions in the system of his social relations are completely incommensurate with the real possibilities of achieving the desired. In these cases, some individuals may choose socially disapproved or even prohibited by law means, as a result of which they become either criminals or offenders in relation to other people and society.

In another version, deviant human behavior is a conscious rejection of general norms of behavior, an open and demonstrative rejection of social value norms, protest and disobedience. Such forms of manifestation are characteristic of various marginal groups (religious extremists, terrorists, revolutionaries, etc.), which are actively fighting against the system of relationships and views characteristic of this community. Often this behavior is characteristic of talented scientists and artists.

The features of deviant behavior of representatives of certain social groups or types are seriously different and should not be assessed by society unambiguously.

In both cases, deviation is the result of an inability (impossibility) or unwillingness to normal socialization and social mimicry.

Diagnostics of deviant behavior

Deviant behavior cannot be measured in "absolute" values, that is, it is relative, since it is measured only with the socio-cultural norms of certain groups. The same forms of social behavior are normal for some communities and completely unacceptable for others.

There are various scientific classifications of deviant behavior. It can be said that, in general, the forms of deviant behavior usually include such phenomena as criminality, prostitution, gambling, alcoholism, drug addiction, mental disorders, and suicide.

The reasons for deviant behavior are often due to not only social, but also biopsychic reasons. For example, the propensity for mental disorders, alcoholism and drug addiction can be transmitted from the older generation to the younger.

Among the reasons explaining the occurrence of deviant manifestations, one can single out such a state of society as anomie. This state is characterized by the inconsistency of established social norms and values with real relations at a time when new forms and norms have not yet established themselves.

Many modern sociologists and psychologists believe that deviant manifestations arise from social inequality in society and radical differences for different social groups in the possibilities of meeting their needs.

The impossibility of agreeing on the requirements and goals proposed by society, as well as the means offered to achieve the goals, is the main source of the emergence of deviant forms of manifestations and the marginalization of population groups uniting according to one or another social or behavioral characteristic.

Often, certain manifestations of behavior can be perceived as deviant, since they are based on the norms of another culture (for example, the view of the indigenous population on the social behavior of migrants).

The adolescent period is usually called difficult. People often use the term "difficult teenager". Young guys and girls are distinguished by their deviant behavior, which they do not hide. What are the reasons for all the signs of uncontrollable behavior? We will also consider the forms, classification and prevention of such behavior.

Adolescence is also called "transitional" (and for good reason). It is during this period that the child stops unconditionally obeying his parents and begins to express his opinion, to defend his own interests. It is difficult for parents to readjust and accept the fact that their child has matured. Now he needs not to indicate, but to negotiate, given that his own thoughts and ideas may be absurd and far from reality.

The deviant behavior that manifests itself in adolescents can be called an attempt by the child to defend his position. Since children are more sincere in their manifestations, then their behavior is emotional and vivid. So far, they are only trying their own strengths to the fullest, which were previously suppressed by the prohibitions of their parents. Now they want to spread their wings and fly like adults. Naturally, at first everything will turn out badly for them.

Deviant behavior is often destructive when teenagers start using drugs, skipping school, fighting other children, and even breaking the law. This is also a way to manifest yourself. The less parents can cope with their own child, the more obvious the need to go to a psychologist becomes.

What is deviant behavior?

What is deviant behavior? It means the commission of acts that contradict the norms of morality, ethics and generally accepted laws. When a person commits an act that is contrary to the foundations and standards, they try to suppress him in various ways, for example, treatment, isolation, correction or punishment.

Deviant behavior is not considered a disease, since a person can stop doing bad deeds at any time. It has many definitions:

Deviant behavior is a threat to the physical and social survival of a person in a society or team. Sociology implies a violation of human assimilation of social norms and moral values.
Deviant behavior in medicine is in the form of a deviation in moral and ethical behavior when a person acts or speaks against the background of neuropsychic pathology, borderline state and mental health.
Deviant behavior in psychology is a deviation from generally accepted and moral norms, when a person harms himself, others, and public well-being.

The social norm, which people are guided by when assessing the actions of adolescents and others, is a set of rules and foundations of what is permissible to do. Anything that goes beyond this framework is called deviant. Accordingly, one can distinguish between:

Positive deviation, when a person destroys social foundations for the sake of creation, creativity, social progress.
Negative deviation, when disorganizing, dysfunctional, destructive actions are performed.

Deviant behavior often manifests itself when socially acceptable goals do not correspond to real possibilities. A person is forced to resort to immoral, illegal, bad deeds in order to achieve his goal. A striking example is the desire to achieve wealth. Since not all people are provided with a job that would be highly paid, many go to various deviant actions:

They commit criminal acts such as stealing money.
They work in the field of intimate services.
Communicate with criminals, etc.

Another striking form of deviant behavior is protest, rejection, disobedience to social norms. A person openly and demonstratively struggles with what is accepted in society.

Deviant behavior is the result of the unwillingness or inability of a person and his requirements. In some situations, it can be called an attempt to find new ways to achieve happy life where freedom and human desires are realized.

Deviant behavior of adolescents

When talking about bad behavior, adolescent behavior is often mentioned, who vividly exhibit all forms of deviation. It is impossible to say that deviant behavior is a consequence of one cause. Each group of adolescents has their own motives that prompted them to act in opposition to social norms.

Modern society is distinguished by its commercialism. The only value is money. Teens are looking for ways to easily get them, noting that study and work are too time-consuming and ungrateful. This is due to the economic situation in the country, as well as those monetary problems that the child observes in his family. The desires of a teenager are much stronger than social prohibitions, so any ways to achieve goals are tried here.

Teenage behavior is dictated by desires ("I want") and the desire to get approval from important people. The authorities in this case are friends or people from whom the teenager takes an example. In rare cases, the parents are the authorities. The teenager wants to live for his own pleasure, which is why he allows himself to do things that can be approved in his circle of friends. This trend begins to decline after age 18.

It is still difficult for a child not to succumb to someone else's influence. Its manifestations are the most vivid and sincere. He often goes against social rules to get attention. Deviant behavior of adolescents is:

Delinquent unlawful.
Antisocial.
Antidisciplinary.
Auto-aggressive: self-harm, suicidal thoughts.

Deviant behavior is dictated by three factors:

Social environment.
Upbringing conditions.
Physical development.

Teenagers begin to carefully examine their appearance. Girls tend to be slim and busty, and guys - tall and pumped up. If someone breaks out of norms, he has to prove his importance to society in other ways. Some teenagers go underground, they are called black sheep. Others begin to show their superiority through deviant behavior: to fight, commit illegal acts, smoke, drink alcohol, etc.

Psychologists believe that the problem of the formation of deviant behavior is that physically a person matures faster than psychologically. He notices that he is becoming an adult, which happens at the time of puberty. At the same time, at the level of the psyche, he continues to be a child.

Emotional instability, the lack of developed psychological qualities of an adult, but the presence of an adult body, ready for reproduction and subject to hormonal influences - all contribute to the commission of actions that will be censured by society and parents.

Signs of deviant behavior

What are the signs of deviant behavior?

It differs from the generally accepted one.
It expresses the maladjustment of a person to social foundations.
It is exposed to sharp and negative assessment society.
It damages either oneself, or others, or social well-being.
It leads to a constant change of friends and conflicts with people.
It leads to poor performance in school, distraction of attention, inability to complete the task.
It develops infantilism. A person is not able to provide for himself and be responsible for his life in general.
It develops fears, phobias, depressive or nervous disorders.
It provokes the development of low self-esteem and complexes.
It is expressed in conflict and inability to “take a hit”. Frequent leaving home.
It develops numerous psychological defenses and impulsive behavior.
It is characterized by psychosomatic illnesses.
It is expressed by aggression and stubbornness.
It is expressed by atypical and destructive interests, inclinations, and hobbies.

A positive sign of deviant behavior is the manifestation of giftedness. If society does not provide a gifted person with a favorable environment, then he will develop nervous and mental disorders, a violation in physical development, a victim complex.

Vivid examples of deviant behavior aimed at self-detriment are:

Scarification or application of piercings, tattoos.
Maiming.
Destruction of your creativity.
Eating disorder.

Forms of deviant behavior

It should be understood that deviant behavior is not a static value. Much depends on the society in which the teenager lives. If extortion or taking bribes is acceptable in society, then it will be censured at the public level, but flourish at the interpersonal level. Typical forms of deviant behavior are:

Criminal crime.
Addiction.
Alcoholism.
Gambling.
Prostitution.
Suicide.
Mental disorder.

R. Merton identifies 4 types of deviation:

Innovation is the achievement of social goals by methods that are not accepted in society:

Financial pyramids.
Prostitutes.
Great scientists.
Blackmailers.

Ritualism is the denial of social goals and the excessive absurdity of ways to achieve them. For example, scrupulous people who check their work many times, forgetting about the ultimate goal.
Rebellion is the denial of both goals and the ways to achieve them, the desire to replace them with something new. These are the so-called revolutionaries.
Retretism is an escape from the need to achieve goals. For example, homeless people, drug addicts, alcoholics.

Other forms of adolescent deviant behavior are:

Hyperkinetic disorder - impulsiveness, inability to follow through, recklessness, tendency to get into accidents. It is characterized by a lack of distance with adults and low self-esteem.
Socialized disorder - building bad relationships with those in power. They show aggression towards them, while they have suppressed qualities: depression, loss of interests, severe suffering, etc.
Conduct disorder limited to family - aggressive and antisocial behavior in relationships with relatives. For example, arson, theft, cruelty.
Unsocialized disorder is a distrustful attitude towards absolutely all people, a desire to isolate oneself from them. , cruel, pugnacious, rude. On rare occasions, good relationships develop but lack trust.
Delinquent violation is a manifestation of actions that violate the rules or the law. For example, theft, fraud, speculation.

Sexual deviant behavior should be noted separately. Children mature early with sexual attraction. Those who reach late puberty are often targets of bullying. They can strip naked, play with their genitals, demand intercourse with animals, etc. If this behavior does not change over time, then it turns into a habit that a person plays out already in adulthood.

Reasons for deviant behavior

Many reasons for deviant behavior are rooted in the child's family relationship with the parents. Single-parent families are the most common factors that form negative qualities in adolescents. When one mother (less often a father) is engaged in raising a child, one model of behavior is played out. The child does not have a variety and a holistic picture of the world.

Difficult teenagers from full families are not uncommon. Here, the reasons for deviant behavior lie exclusively in the relationship between parents and children or between the parents themselves. Outwardly, some families may look exceptionally prosperous and happy. However, if a child grows up in their family, showing deviant behavior, then this indicates that something is wrong in the relationship between relatives.

Deviant behavior can be a consequence of the bad behavior of the parents themselves. Mom and Dad themselves show antisocial habits, so the child repeats after them. Difficult teenagers often grow up in conflict families, where parents and children are constantly in conflict. For them, this behavior is already becoming normal.

Special attention should be paid to the "alcoholic" family. If the parents drink or have a chronic alcoholic in the family, this will negatively affect the development of the child.

Deviant behavior is often the result of various psychological problems that develop in a child as a result of upbringing or the environment in the family:

Fears.
Complexes.
Insufficient supervision.
Unexpressed aggression.
Daydreaming and fantasy.

One should not exclude deviant behavior that is provoked by various mental disorders in the child himself or in someone close to him. In the first case, a teenager may not fully assess the correctness of his own behavior. In the second case, the teenager experiences some external pressure, which makes him run away from trouble.

Classification of deviant behavior

Different types of deviant behavior are divided into 3 classifications:

Criminal level - commission of criminally punishable acts:

Addiction.
Alcoholism.
Crime.
Suicide.

Precriminogenic level - do not pose a danger to society:

Minor misdemeanors.
The use of toxic, alcoholic, narcotic substances.
Violation of moral norms.
Evasion of social activities.
Disruptive behavior in public places.

Pre-deviant syndrome - factors that develop stable deviant behavior:

Aggressive behavior.
Affective behavior.
Antisocial behaviors.
Negative attitude towards learning.
Low level of intelligence.

Prevention of deviant behavior

Psychologists point out that the prevention of deviant behavior is much better than the need to treat or eliminate such manifestations of adolescents. However, prevention is rather difficult to carry out, since we are talking about the entire social structure.

A lot starts with the family. If parents are in conflict, infringe on the rights and freedom of the child, smoke, drink or use drugs, are criminals or commit antisocial acts, then the child will certainly develop similar manifestations. Do not be surprised that a difficult teenager is growing up in a dysfunctional family. The more difficult the situation in the family, the more difficult the child becomes.

At the social level, there are many problems that do not help an individual grow up socially adapted and mentally healthy. Vagrancy (poverty), alcoholism and drug addiction are actively flourishing. In a country with a declining economic level, it is simply impossible to do without criminal actions. At first, the child sees all this, then he himself comes to the idea of trying such forms of behavior that are censured in society, but help to achieve peace of mind in an unfavorable situation in the country.

Parents, educators and teachers are the guides who must develop positive and moral qualities in the child. However, do not forget that:

These guides themselves are people who can have negative character traits.
These guides themselves can shape situations from which it is impossible for children to get out of good deeds.

It should be understood that the child proceeds from a good intention to do well for himself, to maintain his health and mental balance. If he is in a situation or environment from which to run away, then he will look for various ways to achieve the goal. If only by antisocial and immoral actions he manages to make himself happy, then this will become his model of behavior. And the setting or situation is often shaped by parents, caregivers and teachers in childhood and society, country - as an adult.

Forecast

There is no need to say that it is possible to raise a healthy society, since this aspect affects all levels and spheres of human life. The prognosis becomes disappointing, since no child will be able to grow up healthy and prosperous. Even if the parents create ideal conditions for his living, one should not forget that the social world will show the other side of the coin, and the child will be forced to learn to behave differently, and not like at home.

Deviant behavior cannot be called an exclusively negative phenomenon. Much depends on the actions that a person commits, on the goals that he achieves, and the motives that he is guided by. Deviant behavior is rather someone else's opinion on how a person behaves. It is not the person himself who evaluates his actions, but those around him. It is absurd to talk about how unjustified and bad his actions are, since everyone proceeds solely from their own interests and wishes.

Deviant behavior of adolescents should not be ignored and ignored either. The bottom line can be unpleasant, as deviant behavior soon becomes a habit that can be severely punished by society. The child should be helped to correct his own behavior. If the parents cannot cope with the problem themselves, then the services of a psychologist should be used.

The most important criteria for distinguishing pathological forms of deviant behavior from non-pathological ones are the following (Kovalev):

1) the presence of a certain pathocharacterological syndrome, for example, a syndrome of increased affective excitability, emotional-volitional instability, hysterical, epileptoid, hyperthymic character traits;

2) the manifestation of deviant behavior outside the main microsocial groups for a child or adolescent: a family, a school class, a reference group of adolescents;

3) polymorphism of deviant behavior, that is, a combination of deviant actions of a different nature in the same adolescent - antidisciplinary, antisocial, delinquent, autoaggressive;

4) a combination of behavioral disorders with disorders of the neurotic level - affective, somato-vegetative, motor;

5) the dynamics of deviant behavior in the direction of fixing the stereotypes of disturbed behavior, their transition into character anomalies and pathology of drives with a tendency to pathological personality transformation.

Clinical and physiological foundations of deviant behavior. Pathological forms of deviant behavior in children and adolescents are clinically associated mainly with pathological situational (pathocharacterological) reactions, psychogenic pathological personality formations (F60-F69), early manifestations of emerging psychopathies (nuclear and organic (F60-F69)), as well as with non-procedural (residual organic and somatogenic) psychopathic conditions (F07.0).

Socio-psychological factors of deviant behavior. The psychological characteristics of a society characterized by a continuous increase in the amount of information favorable for the emergence of emotional deprivation, with a shaken institution of marriage and family, an increase in relative social isolation and alienation of people with an increase in the level of employment, responsibility, and lack of time, contribute to the formation of behavioral disorders. Situations of insufficient social and psychological adaptation of a child or adolescent, with poor assimilation of socially approved behavioral stereotypes with the interiorization of asocial values, the influence of asocial attitudes appear as an important prerequisite for antisocial behavior (Chudnovsky). Social tension in society creates conditions for the intensive emergence of mental disorders and socially dangerous forms of deviant behavior (alcoholism (F10), drug addiction (F11-F14), suicide, crime); however, the increase in the incidence of mental disorders and deviant behavior, in turn, increases social tension in the population. When studying the pathogenic effect of social factors on mental health, they should be differentiated into two groups: macrosocial and microsocial. The former are directly conditioned by the social system, socio-economic and political structure of society. The latter reflect the specific directions of the social life of people in its various spheres (work, rest, everyday life). Psychological problems in the family and in the working microgroup, they still remain one of the main reasons for the development of mental health disorders, refracted through the prism of macrosocial conditions (Dmitrieva, Polozhiy).

Mendelevich describes the psychological characteristics that characterize individuals with addictive behavior. The main features of such personalities include the following:

1) reduced tolerance to the difficulties of everyday life, along with good tolerance to crisis situations;

2) a hidden inferiority complex, combined with externally manifested superiority;

3) external sociability, combined with fear of persistent emotional contacts;

4) the desire to tell a lie;

5) the desire to blame others, knowing that they are innocent;

6) the desire to evade responsibility in decision-making;

7) stereotyped behavior, repetition of behavior;

8) dependence;

9) anxiety.

Addictive individuals are characterized by the phenomenon of “thirst for thrills” with a desire for risk, gravitation towards dangerous situations and types of activity, lack of stability and reliability in interpersonal relationships. The main thing in the behavior of an addictive personality is the desire to escape from reality, fear of an ordinary, gray and boring life, of obligations and responsibility, a tendency to intense emotional experiences, to dangerous situations, risks and adventures.

The main forms of deviant behavior. Drunkenness and alcoholism. Deviant behavior in the form of the use and abuse of substances that cause states of altered mental activity, mental and physical dependence on them, is one of the most common forms of deviant behavior. The formation of chronic alcoholism (F10) as a progressive disease in adults is preceded by a rather long period of drunkenness. In adolescence, formed chronic alcoholism is rare, and the most urgent problem is early alcoholism. Lichko distinguishes between the concept of early alcoholism as one of the manifestations of deviant behavior in adolescents and chronic alcoholism as a disease. Early alcoholization includes the use of intoxicating doses of alcohol before the age of 16 and its more or less regular use in older adolescence. There are three stages of alcoholism (F10).

1. The initial stage is characterized by mental dependence on alcohol, an increase in tolerance to alcohol, the appearance of palimpsests, manifested in the partial oblivion of individual events and their behavior in a state of intoxication. At this stage, a transition is made from episodic to systematic drunkenness. In patients, changes in the course of cognitive mental processes are found: there is a decrease in memory processes, at first retention, and then memorization, impaired attention and decreased performance. At the initial stage, an asthenic symptom complex appears.

Drug addiction (F11-F14) and substance abuse (F15-F19). The general name of diseases that manifest themselves with a tendency to constantly take in increasing quantities of narcotic drugs and narcotic substances due to persistent mental and physical dependence on them with the development of abstinence when they stop taking them. In the course of the disease, profound changes in the personality of the sick person occur, various mental disorders up to dementia (F1x.73) are observed, the functions of internal organs are impaired and nervous system; a consequence of the altered psyche can be the infliction of harm in one form or another to society.

The motivation for the use of alcohol and drugs has several forms (Korolenko).

1. Atarakticheskaya motivation consists in the desire to use substances in order to alleviate or eliminate the phenomena of emotional discomfort. A substance that causes intoxication is used as a drug that relieves negative phenomena and symptoms of mental distress (anxiety, depressive experiences). The use of a substance can also be aimed at stopping intrapersonal conflict in psychogenic disorders.

2. Hedonistic motivation is a continuation and development of ataractic: ataractic brings the emotional state back to normal from a reduced one, and hedonistic one contributes to an increase in normal (not reduced) mood. The hedonistic orientation is manifested in obtaining satisfaction, feelings of joy, euphoria from taking substances against the background of a normal mood.

3. Motivation with hyperactivation of behavior is close to hedonistic, but is based not on the euphorizing, but on the activating effect of the substance. In some cases, both effects can act together. In this case, the motivation is the desire to bring oneself out of the state of passivity, indifference, apathy and inaction. For this purpose, substances are used that provoke an unusual, transcendental liveliness of reaction and activity.

4. Submissive motivation for the use of substances reflects the inability to resist the pressure of others, the inability to refuse from the proposed consumption of alcohol, narcotic medicinal or non-narcotic medicinal substances, which is a consequence of the specific personality characteristics of a subject with features of timidity, shyness, conformity, anxiety.

5. Pseudo-cultural motivation is based on ideological attitudes and aesthetic preferences. At the same time, the behavior of the individual has the character of involvement in tradition, culture, and a chosen circle of persons. With pseudo-cultural motivation, it is not so much the use of substances itself that is important, but the demonstration of this process to others.

Prevention of deviant behavior. Individual preventive work should be aimed at two relatively independent, but interconnected objects: 1) at the criminal environment of a particular person and 2) at the person with deviant behavior. The impact on the criminal environment, as a rule, is not so much a psychological task as a legal, social and socio-psychological one. The impact on the personality involves the solution of two main tasks: a) structural and substantive restructuring of its motivational sphere (strategic task) and b) correction of a specific motivation of the subject in a typical crime situation (tactical task). Individual prevention of possible criminal behavior is a concretization of general psychological and special criminological measures in relation to an individual or a group of specific individuals.

Antonyan considers it expedient to use a step-by-step program of individual prevention, associated with the impact on the motivational sphere of the individual, which is carried out in the following situations.

1. In a "latent" situation, only the motives of probable antisocial actions are formed, or there is a real threat of the emergence of such motives.

2. In a “pre-criminal” situation, the behavior of the subject, in addition to negative motivational shifts, is characterized by relatively stable immorality and wrongfulness.

3. In a "criminal" situation, a criminal case is already underway against the subject. The committed crime and predictive conclusions about possible ways of correcting the offender and preventing relapse determine the content and form of impacts.

4. “Post-crime” situation of individual prevention, as a rule, is associated with the convict's stay in places of deprivation of liberty. In order to reeducate the culprit and prevent relapse, it is especially important to identify the motives of the crime and take measures to eliminate them.

The concept of deviant behavior. Deviant (deviant - from late Lat. Deviatio - deviation) behavior - a system of actions or individual actions that contradict legal or moral norms accepted in society. The main types of deviant behavior include: crime and not criminally punishable (unlawful) immoral behavior (systematic drunkenness, money-grubbing, licentiousness in the sphere of sexual relations, etc.). As a rule, there is a connection between these types of deviant behavior, which is that the commission of offenses is often preceded by immoral behavior that has become habitual for a person. In studies devoted to deviant behavior, a significant place is given to the study of its motives, causes and conditions conducive to its development, the possibilities of prevention and overcoming. In the origin of this kind of behavior, defects in legal and moral consciousness, the content of the needs of the individual, character traits, and the emotional-volitional sphere play a particularly large role. Deviant behavior in the form of delinquent (from Lat. Delinquens) - illegal and auto-aggressive actions can be both pathological, caused by various forms of personality pathology and personal response, and non-pathological, that is, psychological (Ambrumova). By themselves, deviant actions are not a mandatory sign of mental disorders and, moreover, a serious mental illness. Basically, they are due to social and psychological deviations of the personality, first of all, microsocial and psychological neglect, as well as situational characterological reactions (protest, refusal, imitation, emancipation, etc.). In some cases, deviant behavior in adolescents is to one degree or another associated with the pathology of personality formation and with pathological situational (pathocharacterological) reactions, and therefore refers to the manifestations of mental pathology, more often borderline.

The most important criteria for distinguishing pathological forms of deviant behavior from non-pathological ones are the following (Kovalev):

2) the manifestation of deviant behavior outside the main microsocial groups for a child or adolescent: a family, a school class, a reference group of adolescents;

3) polymorphism of deviant behavior, that is, a combination of deviant actions of a different nature in the same adolescent - antidisciplinary, antisocial, delinquent, autoaggressive;

4) a combination of behavioral disorders with disorders of the neurotic level - affective, somato-vegetative, motor;

Pathocharacterological reactions in children and adolescents as a special form of mental disorder are described by Kovalev. Pathological situational (pathocharacterological) reactions are psychogenic personality reactions, manifested in stereotypical deviations of behavior (of the "cliché" type) that arise in different psychotraumatic situations, tend to exceed a certain "ceiling" of behavioral disturbances possible in peers, and also, as a rule , are accompanied by somato-vegetative disorders and lead to more or less long-term disorders of social adaptation. These reactions are distinguished from the reactions of "characterological" - non-pathological behavioral disorders in children and adolescents, which manifest themselves only in certain situations, do not lead to maladjustment of the personality and are not accompanied by somatovegetative disorders. Pathological situational reactions often develop gradually on the basis of psychological ones, however, in children and adolescents with psychopathic character traits, residual organic cerebral changes, even minimal, as well as with a pathologically proceeding pubertal crisis, these reactions can immediately arise as pathological.

Pathocharacterological reactions, in contrast to acute affective ones, turn out to be protracted, long-term disorders - they last for many weeks, months, and even years. They are manifested mainly by situationally conditioned pathological disorders of behavior: delinquency, running away from home, vagrancy, early alcoholism and the use of other psychoactive substances, suicidal behavior, transient sexual deviations (F69.5). Among delinquent adolescents under 16 years old, 71% are alcoholics, 54% run away from home; 10% have sexual deviations, 8% have suicide attempts (Semke).

Psychogenic pathocharacterological personality formations (F60-F69) represent the formation of an immature personality in children and adolescents in a pathological, abnormal direction under the influence of chronic pathogenic influences of negative social and psychological factors (improper upbringing, long-term psycho-traumatic situations, primarily causing pathological situational personality reactions). This concept is closely related to the development of ideas about the possibility of persistent acquired personality pathology - “reactive psychopathy” according to Krasnushkin, “regional psychopathy” according to Kerbikov, under the influence of unfavorable factors of the microsocial environment.

Psychopathies (F60-F69) in clinical psychiatry mean pathological conditions characterized by disharmony in the mental structure of the personality, the totality and severity of pathological disorders, which to one degree or another interfere with the full-fledged social adaptation of the subject. Diagnosis of psychopathies is based on the clinical criteria proposed by Gannushkin. Behavioral disorders in psychopathies with impulsivity, aggressiveness, disregard for existing moral and ethical norms determine the social aspect of this problem. Even in the first clinical descriptions of personality anomalies (Kandinsky, Bekhterev), attention was drawn to those characterological traits that may be important for the formation of criminal behavior: cruelty towards people and animals manifested from childhood, selfishness, lack of compassion, a tendency to lie and theft, imbalance of emotions, violation of the normal relationship between the strength of external stimuli and the reaction to them, pathology of drives (F63).

The problem of psychopathy in childhood and adolescence is controversial due to the immaturity, unformed structure of the personality during these periods of life. Nevertheless, studies by a number of domestic psychiatrists (Sukharev and others) have shown the existence of a number of forms of psychopathy, primarily constitutional ("nuclear"), not only in adolescence, but also in childhood. In childhood (by about 11-12 years), according to Lichko, the main components of psychopathies of the epileptoid (F60.30) and schizoid type (F60.1) appear, and in older adolescents - signs of unstable (F60.3), hysterical ( F60.4) and hyperthymic type (F60.3).

Unlike psychopathies, in psychopathic states (F61.1) there is not a violation of the process of personality formation, but its "breakdown", a defect associated with exogenous (infectious, traumatic, etc.) damage to the mechanisms and structures of the emerging personality. The common basis for these states is a variant of the organic psychosyndrome (F07.9), characterized by a defect in the emotional-volitional properties of the personality. Psychoorganic syndrome is a symptom complex of memory, intelligence and affectivity disorders, characterized by exhaustion of mental processes, lack of active attention, memory loss, first of all, a disorder of the processes of voluntary memorization and reproduction, a decrease in the level of analytical and synthetic thinking activity with a tendency to focus on specific situational signs of phenomena ... This syndrome is characterized by features of emotionality associated with insufficient control over emotions, their periodic response in the form of a kind of affective "discharge", a tendency to the formation of dysphoria - periods of melancholy-spiteful mood with gradually, gradually boiling irritation and violent affective "discharge" that regulate "emotional homeostasis ".

The concept of self-destructive behavior, out of control of self-awareness, is inextricably linked with the concepts of mental illness or borderline mental disorder, which are a specifically human form of pathology, which manifests itself mainly in a violation of the person's reflection of the environment and his own inner world. Therefore, in the mechanisms of development of deviant behavior, an essential role is played by the disorder of personality adaptation to the environment. Signs of a violation of social adaptation include: a decrease in the need for belonging to society, in acceptance and support by people around, loss of socially oriented feelings, distrust of a close social circle and social norms, lack of contact, a negative attitude towards the requirements of others and conflict in relationships with them. ... The concept of "delinquency" is now widely used to denote behavioral disorder in the form of minor offenses and misdemeanors that do not reach a crime (crime) punishable by court. If criminal behavior is qualified on the basis of legal norms enshrined in the Criminal Code, then delinquent behavior is qualified on the basis of moral and ethical norms recorded in public opinion.

According to Lichko, delinquency is the most striking manifestation of behavior of an unstable type of psychopathy (F60.3) and character accentuations (Z73.1). It also occurs in hyperthymic (F60.3) and hysteroid (F60.4) psychopathy and accentuation. In epileptoids and schizoids, delinquency is more often noted if the character deviation reaches the degree of psychopathy (F60-F69). Sometimes, delinquent behavior can occur in emotionally labile adolescents in conditions of emotional rejection and neglect. Delinquency is not characteristic of other types of psychopathies and character accentuations, especially sensitive (F60.7) and psychasthenic (F48.8).

Factors leading to the formation of conduct disorders can be divided into the following:

1) painful strengthening of drives as a result of organic diseases of the brain or constitutionally determined inferiority, which leads to changes in drives, sometimes reaching the degree of deep perversions incompatible with social norms;

3) protest reactions resulting from unfair treatment by parents or other caregivers;

4) insoluble personal conflicts, leading to impulsive actions aimed at trying to resolve them.

Socio-psychological factors of deviant behavior. The psychological characteristics of a society characterized by a continuous increase in the amount of information favorable for the emergence of emotional deprivation, with a shaken institution of marriage and family, an increase in relative social isolation and alienation of people with an increase in the level of employment, responsibility, and lack of time, contribute to the formation of behavioral disorders. Situations of insufficient social and psychological adaptation of a child or adolescent, with poor assimilation of socially approved behavioral stereotypes with the interiorization of asocial values, the influence of asocial attitudes appear as an important prerequisite for antisocial behavior (Chudnovsky). Social tension in society creates conditions for the intensive emergence of mental disorders and socially dangerous forms of deviant behavior (alcoholism (F10), drug addiction (F11-F14), suicide, crime); however, the increase in the incidence of mental disorders and deviant behavior, in turn, increases social tension in the population. When studying the pathogenic effect of social factors on mental health, they should be differentiated into two groups: macrosocial and microsocial. The former are directly conditioned by the social system, socio-economic and political structure of society. The latter reflect the specific directions of the social life of people in its various spheres (work, rest, everyday life). Psychological problems in the family and in the working microgroup still remain one of the main reasons for the development of mental health disorders, refracted through the prism of macrosocial conditions (Dmitrieva, Polozhiy).

Among the psychological factors of deviant behavior, motivation plays an important role, performing four main functions: reflective, incentive, regulatory, and controlling. Delinquent and criminal behavior correlates not so much with poor knowledge of moral and legal requirements, but with criminogenic deformation of incentives. Formation of a system of motives of the personality of a possible offender and their actualization in a specific life situation perform a reflective function; the emergence of a motive and the formation of a goal of behavior - an incentive; the choice of ways to achieve the goal, forecasting possible consequences and making a decision to commit an offense - regulatory; control and correction of actions, analysis of the consequences that have occurred, repentance or the development of a protective motive - controlling (Kudryavtsev). Based on violations of the structure of motives, their mediated nature and hierarchical structure, Guldan identified two main mechanisms for the formation of motives for illegal actions in psychopathic individuals (F60-F69): violation of the mediation of needs and violation of their objectification. Violations of the mediation of needs consist in the lack of formation or destruction in these persons under the influence of any factors (for example, affective arousal) of socially determined ways of realizing needs. The connection between the subjective possibility of realizing a need and a consciously accepted intention, goal, assessment of the situation, past experience, forecast of future events, the regulatory function of self-esteem, social norms, etc. is broken. The number of links in the general structure of activity decreases, which leads to the direct implementation of emerging impulses. Needs take on the character of drives. According to this mechanism, affectogenic and situational-impulsive motives of illegal actions are formed.

Affectogenic motives are characterized by the fact that the immediate motive of behavior is the desire to immediately eliminate the source of traumatic experiences. Emotional excitement arising in connection with the objective or subjective impossibility of rational resolution of the conflict destroys the main types of control and mediation of behavior, removes the prohibition on destructive, violent actions and encourages them. In psychopathic individuals, compared with mentally healthy individuals, there is a lower "threshold" of affective response and the prevalence of conditioned psychogenias.

In situational-impulsive motives, the actual need is satisfied by the "nearest object" without taking into account existing norms, past experience, specific situation, possible consequences of their actions. If in a "volitional" criminal action, social and legal norms are overcome in one way or another in the consciousness of the subject, then with impulsive behavior they are not at all actualized as a factor mediating behavior.

The motives associated with the violation of the formation of the object of need include the motives of psychopathic self-actualization, surrogate motives and suggestive (suggested) motives of illegal actions. What they have in common is the formation of motives that are alienated from the actual needs of the subject and lead, during their implementation, to his social maladjustment. The motives of psychopathic self-actualization, in which this or that trait of personal disharmony acquires a stable motivational value, lead to the implementation of stereotypical, rigid "personality scenarios", implemented to a certain extent regardless of external conditions and the actual needs of the subject. The formation of surrogate motives is associated with the objective, and in psychopathic personalities, more often with the subjective impossibility of adequately objectifying needs. Their implementation does not lead to the satisfaction of the need, but only to a temporary release of the tension associated with this need. Suggestive motives in relation to the needs of the subject are of an external, borrowed nature, their content can be directly opposite to the individual's own attitudes, value orientations (Guldan).

Of great importance for understanding and predicting deviant behavior is also the study of the personality of a disadvantaged child or adolescent, his socio-psychological and psychological properties, such as: egocentrism with a predominant focus on his own subjectively significant values and goals and with an underestimation of the requirements of reality, the interests of others; intolerance for psychological discomfort; insufficient level of control over their own emotional reactions and behavior in general; impulsivity, when actual impulses, bypassing cognitive processing, are directly implemented in behavior; a low level of empathy, reflecting a reduced sensitivity to the suffering of others, an insufficient degree of internalization of moral, ethical and legal norms, an internalization of asocial norms that regulate behavior.

The set of specific properties of a criminal's personality can serve as a scientific and practical guide in the study of persons with deviant behavior, in predicting and preventing possible crimes of these persons (Kudryavtsev, Antonyan). The study of personality in this case involves obtaining information about her needs and interests, value orientations, the degree and quality of the individual's socialization, the characteristics of his response to certain circumstances, motives realized in other actions, the typological psychological characteristics of the individual as a whole. In the course of the analysis, it is necessary to raise the question: what elements of the situation and how influenced certain elements (stages) of the motivational process, on the formation of motives, their competition, hierarchy, etc. situations that they turn out to be adequate, that is, they correspond to its internal structure.

The concept of addictive behavior. An unhealthy lifestyle, alcoholization and nicotinization of the population, the increasingly widespread use of drugs and toxic substances, delinquent behavior, including sexual deviations, withdrawal from socially constructive activities, idle pastime - all this gives rise to the formation of the concept of self-destructive behavior as a manifestation of a dysfunctional state of personality (Popov ). Self-destructive behavior is based on the desire to escape from life's problems. Alcoholization and drug addiction, although they are considered universal means of escaping reality, are not the only ones. In this regard, the study of one of the forms of deviant behavior in the form of addictive behavior has become widespread - deviant behavior characterized by a desire to escape from reality by artificially changing one's mental state by taking certain substances or by constantly fixing attention on certain types of activity, which is aimed at developing and maintaining intense emotions. Not only drug addiction, but any other progressive addiction (including slot machines - gambling, computers - Internet addiction, etc.) leads to a gradual removal from other activities and entertainment, narrows the range of hobbies and interests. This behavior also includes the compulsive need to be busy ("workaholics"). The concept of addictive behavior developed by Korolenko is based on the assumption that there are general mechanisms inherent in different forms addictions of both pharmacological and non-pharmacological content. At the same time, there is a decrease in the level of requirements and criticism to others and to oneself, which may be accompanied by a simplification of the personality with a leveling of personal properties, up to its gradual degradation. The main motive of behavior becomes an active desire to change an unsatisfying mental state, which seems boring, monotonous and monotonous. The surrounding events do not arouse interest and are not a source of pleasant emotional experiences. Analyzing the psychological mechanisms underlying various addictions, Korolenko comes to the conclusion that the beginning of the formation of the addictive process always occurs on the emotional level. There is an emotional state that combines various (pharmacological and non-pharmacological) addictions. It is based on the human desire for psychological comfort. Under normal conditions, psychological comfort is achieved in various ways: overcoming obstacles, achieving meaningful goals, satisfying curiosity, realizing research interest, showing sympathy for other people, helping and supporting them, following religious experience and experiences, playing sports, psychological exercises, going out into the world. imagination and fantasies, etc. In cases of the formation of addictions, this multiple choice is sharply narrowed: there is a fixation on any one way of achieving comfort, all others are excluded or relegated to the background and are used less and less. This process is called the convergence of emotional comfort, with a sharp limitation of the methods used to achieve it, the methods of choice.

Mendelevich describes the psychological characteristics that characterize individuals with addictive behavior. The main features of such personalities include the following:

1) reduced tolerance to the difficulties of everyday life, along with good tolerance to crisis situations;

2) a hidden inferiority complex, combined with externally manifested superiority;

3) external sociability, combined with fear of persistent emotional contacts;

4) the desire to tell a lie;

5) the desire to blame others, knowing that they are innocent;

6) the desire to evade responsibility in decision-making;

7) stereotyped behavior, repetition of behavior;

8) dependence;

9) anxiety.

The main forms of deviant behavior.Drunkenness and alcoholism. Deviant behavior in the form of the use and abuse of substances that cause states of altered mental activity, mental and physical dependence on them, is one of the most common forms of deviant behavior. The formation of chronic alcoholism (F10) as a progressive disease in adults is preceded by a rather long period of drunkenness. In adolescence, formed chronic alcoholism is rare, and the most urgent problem is early alcoholism. Lichko distinguishes between the concept of early alcoholism as one of the manifestations of deviant behavior in adolescents and chronic alcoholism as a disease. Early alcoholization includes the use of intoxicating doses of alcohol before the age of 16 and its more or less regular use in older adolescence. In this case, we are not talking about early alcoholism, but about what adults call “everyday drunkenness”. Early alcoholization occurs most often as a result of delinquency. Initially, the motives for drinking are unwillingness to lag behind comrades, curiosity, a path to adulthood that is understood in its own way. If, with repeated drinking, a new motive appears - the desire to experience a cheerful mood, a feeling of disinhibition, comfort, then alcoholization becomes a form of toxic behavior.

Alcoholism is an exogenous mental illness (substance abuse), which, with a constant or recurrent course, leads to the formation of a progressive organic psychosyndrome (F07.9) and to alcoholic degradation of the personality. The separation of organic psychosyndrome and personality decline in alcoholism is conditional: these two psychopathological phenomena are closely interrelated. The etiological factor of alcoholism is alcohol consumption. Alcohol intake alone is not enough for the formation of the disease - additional factors are required, which are usually divided into physiological, psychological and social. Metabolic disorders are of great importance in the origin of alcoholism; factors of natural and artificial immunity play a certain role. The social factors of alcoholism are a whole complex, which takes into account education, marital status, the state's attitude to alcoholism, etc. Among persons suffering from alcoholism, the majority are single, single, divorced. The role of the family in the development of domestic drunkenness and alcoholism is currently recognized by almost everyone. The importance of many factors is noted: unfavorable relationships between parents, early exposure to alcohol, the customs of the closest social environment oriented towards alcohol consumption, generally accepted alcoholic traditions, an attitude towards the habitual consumption of alcohol, chronic conflicts in one's own family, a low cultural level, inappropriate use of free time, the impact of the professional production group (Babayan).

Alcohol causes a feeling of comfort, pleasure, euphoria, as well as a state of relaxation and reduction of mental tension. Alcoholism as a means of spending time easily, getting pleasure, characterizes primitive individuals with low demands and limited interests; as a way to relax, relieve stress - people who do not know how to cope with life's difficulties, with a low level of social adaptation.

The group of persons in whom psychological factors play a significant role in the development of alcoholism are mentally ill. Patients with mental disorders begin to consume alcohol due to the peculiarities of their mental attitudes changed by the disease (for example, patients with borderline states), mental disorders (some patients with epilepsy (G40)), the presence of psychopathological products (delusions, hallucinations), emotional disorders (with depression, mania), personality degradation. With each mental illness, alcoholism has its own characteristics of occurrence, course and outcome.

There are three stages of alcoholism (F10).

2. The advanced stage is characterized by an uncontrollable, compulsive craving for alcohol. Tolerance to alcohol in this period reaches its maximum, withdrawal symptoms are formed, physical dependence on alcohol appears. Severe sleep disturbances are noted. During this period, the formation of alcoholic psychoses is also possible (F1x.5). Patients show signs of personality decline: there are neurosis-like manifestations of mental activity or psychopathic behavior in an asthenic, hysterical, explosive type. Apathetic syndrome is considered as a manifestation of the stage of deeper personality damage. Often, patients with alcoholism develop excessive extroversion, which is pathological in nature due to the changes in the system of needs and motives inherent in these patients. The used mechanisms of psychological defense consist in an unconditional tendency towards self-justification. A peculiar alcoholic humor is associated with the mechanisms of pathological psychological defense - flat, rude, cynical, with elements of aggressiveness. During the course of the disease, self-esteem disorders are detected earlier than criticality disorders in cognitive activity, even before the formation of severe alcoholic dementia. Criticality disorders are an important objective criterion of alcohol degradation. With gross alcohol degradation, aspontaneity in combination with "empty" introversion, loss of social contacts, withdrawal from reality, and lack of interest in what is happening are typical.

3. At the third, final, stage of alcoholism, craving for alcohol is due to the need to relieve physical discomfort; she is uncontrollable, unbridled, compulsive in nature. A decrease in intellectual and mnestic functions is pronounced, up to the Korsakov amnestic syndrome (F1x.6) with profound memory impairments, confabulations, and amnestic disorientations. Alcoholic dementia (F1x.73) levels the individual psychological properties of the personality. Ethical, moral norms of behavior, a sense of responsibility are absent. Mood swings are typical - "momentary" behavior, dysphoria, severe depression. Decreases criticism to their condition, position in society. Frequent amnesia is characteristic. Possible acute (F1x.5) or chronic alcoholic psychoses (F1x.7). There are lesions of internal organs and systems, often with irreversible changes(cirrhosis of the liver (K74), myocardial infarction (I21)); somatovegetative symptoms are accompanied by neurological symptoms - tremors of the extremities, peripheral seizures are observed, epileptiform seizures are possible, systemic disorders, brain syndromes (hemorrhagic polyencephalitis) may appear.

Addiction(F11-F14) and substance abuse(F15-F19). The general name of diseases that manifest themselves with a tendency to constantly take in increasing quantities of narcotic drugs and narcotic substances due to persistent mental and physical dependence on them with the development of abstinence when they stop taking them. In the course of the disease, profound changes in the personality of the patient occur, various mental disorders up to dementia (F1x.73) are observed, the functions of internal organs and the nervous system are disrupted; a consequence of the altered psyche can be the infliction of harm in one form or another to society.

Along with the term "drug addiction", in narcology and psychiatry they also use the term "drug dependence" (F1x.2), which is defined as "a mental and sometimes physical condition characterized by certain behavioral reactions, which always include an urgent need for constant or intermittent renewed use of a particular drug to avoid the unpleasant symptoms associated with discontinuation of the drug ”(16th report of the WHO Expert Committee on Addictive Drugs). Distinguish between mental and physical types of drug addiction. Psychic dependence is understood as a state in which a drug causes a feeling of satisfaction and mental recovery; periodically renewed or continuous administration of the drug is required in order to experience pleasure or avoid discomfort. Psychological dependence syndrome refers to a state of the body characterized by a pathological need to take any drug or other substance in order to avoid mental disorders or discomfort that occurs when it is stopped, but without withdrawal symptoms.

Physical dependence refers to an adaptive state that is manifested by intense physical disorders when the administration of the corresponding drug is stopped. These disorders, that is, withdrawal syndrome (F1x.3), is a complex of specific symptoms and signs of mental and physical properties that are characteristic of the action of each type of drug. Physical dependence syndrome is a condition characterized by the development of withdrawal symptoms when the drug or other substance that causes dependence is discontinued (or after the administration of its antagonists). Pay attention to the existence of congenital and acquired dependence (Babayan). The picture of congenital dependence syndrome is presented in full and includes both physical and mental dependence. From the day of birth, a person depends on air, water, mother's milk, etc. For example, when water is deprived, symptoms of mental agitation and hallucinations appear (for example, water sources, springs begin to see, the sound of water is heard) and, finally, death may occur ... In the course of ontogenesis and in the process of evolution of mankind, the range of food products on which a person is dependent is gradually expanding. However, this dependence on food products develops according to the mechanisms characteristic of congenital dependence. Acquired addiction arises from the use of appropriate drugs or other substances due to the fact that they alleviate painful condition, cause euphoria, intoxication, which are observed when using both narcotic drugs and psychotropic drugs or alcoholic beverages. At the same time, the concept of "drug dependence" (F1x.2) does not replace the term "drug addiction" and is used only to denote addiction (mental or physical) as one of the syndromes detected in drug addiction (F11, F12, F14) and substance abuse (F15- F19).

State Academic University of Humanities

Psychology faculty

Course work

on the topic: Psychology of deviant behavior

Completed by a 2nd year student

Baryagina Ksenia

Moscow 2011

Introduction

The concept and types of deviant behavior

The concept of the norm in the psychology of deviant behavior

Methods for studying deviant behavior

Theories of deviant behavior

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The whole world, social being and each person tend to deviate from the axis of their existence and development. The reason for this deviation lies in the peculiarities of the relationship and interaction of a person with the outside world, social environment and himself. The diversity arising on the basis of this property in the psychophysical, sociocultural, spiritual and moral state of people and their behavior is a condition for the flourishing of society, its improvement and implementation. social development.

Deviation in behavior - deviant behavior - is, therefore, a natural condition for the development of a person, the life of the whole society. In other words, deviant behavior was, is and will be, and this is the relevance of its study. The main goal of this work is to conduct a comparative analysis of various scientific concepts of deviant behavior.

The concept and types of deviant behavior

To start analyzing the concepts, you must first give the concept of the term "deviant behavior". Deviant behavior (from lat. deviation- deviation) - committing acts that contradict the norms of social behavior in one form or another. That is, all actions that contradict the rules of behavior traditionally accepted in a particular society. The main types of deviant behavior include, first of all, crime, alcoholism and drug addiction.

Numerous forms of deviant behavior indicate a state of conflict between personal and public interests. Deviant behavior is most often an attempt to leave society, to escape from everyday life problems and adversities, to overcome a state of insecurity and tension through certain compensatory forms. However, deviant behavior is not always negative. It may be associated with the desire of the individual for the new, an attempt to overcome the conservative, which prevents him from moving forward. Various types of scientific, technical and artistic creativity can be classified as deviant behavior.

The process of socialization (the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and values necessary for his successful functioning in a given society) reaches a certain degree of completion when a person reaches social maturity, which is characterized by the acquisition of an integral social status by a person (a status that determines a person's position in society). However, in the process of socialization, failures and failures are possible. Consider types of social deviations:

1. Cultural and mental disorders.

One individual may have deviations in social behavior, the other in a personal organization. If these two types of deviations are combined, then the deviation from cultural norms is committed by a mentally abnormal person. People often try to associate cultural deviations with mental ones. Naturally, personal disorganization is far from the only reason for deviant behavior. Usually, mentally abnormal individuals fully comply with all the rules and norms accepted in society, and vice versa, individuals who are mentally completely normal commit very serious deviations. The question of why this happens is of interest to both sociologists and psychologists.

2. Individual and group deviations.

Individual - when a separate individual rejects the norms of his subculture. Such a personality is usually regarded as an individual deviant. At the same time, in every society there are many deviating subcultures, the norms of which are condemned by the generally accepted, dominant morality of society. Group deviation is seen as the conformal behavior of a member of a deviant group in relation to its subculture.

3. Primary and secondary deviations.

Primary deviation refers to the deviant behavior of the individual, which generally corresponds to the cultural norms accepted in society. In this case, the deviations made by the individual are so insignificant and tolerant that he does not socially qualify as a deviant and does not consider himself as such. For him and for those around him, the deviation looks like just a small prank, eccentricity, or at worst a mistake. Secondary deviation is called a deviation from existing norms in a group, which is socially defined as deviant.

4. Culturally Approved Deviations.

Deviant behavior is always judged in terms of the culture of a given society. This assessment is that some deviations are condemned, while others are approved. It is necessary to highlight the necessary qualities and ways of behavior that can lead to socially approved deviations:

· Superintelligence.

Increased intelligence can be considered as a way of behavior that leads to socially approved deviations only when a limited number of social statuses... Exaltation on the basis of intellectuality is possible only in separate, strictly limited areas of human activity.

· Special inclinations.

Allow to show unique qualities in very narrow, specific areas of activity.

· Overmotivation.

It is unclear why people become highly motivated. Obviously, one of the reasons for over-motivation is group influence. The influence of external conditions in combination with group influence contributes to the emergence of a large number of individuals with supermotivation in various fields of activity. Many sociologists believe that intense motivation often compensates for deprivation or distress experienced in childhood or adolescence.

· Personal qualities.

Personality traits and character traits that help to achieve the exaltation of the personality. Personal qualities are undoubtedly an important factor in achieving exaltation, and often even the most important. It is no coincidence that many great personalities had some outstanding personality trait.

· Lucky case.

A happy accident can contribute to the manifestation of a person's abilities in certain activities. Great achievements are not only a pronounced talent and desire, but also their manifestation in a certain place and at a certain time.

5. Culturally condemned deviations.

Most societies support and reward social deviations, manifested in the form of extraordinary achievements and activities aimed at the development of generally accepted cultural values. These societies are not strict about individual failure to achieve the deviations they approve. As for the violation of moral norms and laws, it has always been severely condemned and punished in society.

The concept of the norm in the psychology of deviant behavior

Above, the subject of the psychology of deviant behavior was discussed. It included deviating from a variety of norms:

situational reactions,

mental states,

personality development, leading to maladjustment of a person in society and / or a violation of self-actualization.

Based on this, it is possible to compose the most general list of normsof psychological interest:

) The norms according to which a person should (and can) direct and regulate his behavior in a given situation. It is obvious that the selection of such norms can be based either on the concept adequacy, or the concept typicality, or, finally, on the concept ideal, ideally due behavior. It should be noted that inappropriate behavior may also be typical, for example, in a situation of panic. Adequate behavior presupposes a rational assessment of the situation, or instinctive behavior in it. In other words, various criteria of adequacy are possible.

) Norms associated with the characteristics of certain mental states.

Mental state is understood as a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased personality activity.

The state is the effect of mental activity and the background on which the activity takes place. The states differ in their relative duration (days, weeks).

Mental states are subdivided into:

motivational - based on needs (desires, interests, drives);

states of organization of consciousness are manifested in various levels of attentiveness, efficiency;

emotional - stress, affect, frustration;

strong-willed (states of initiative, purposefulness, decisiveness, perseverance, etc.)

It should be noted that the norms associated with mental states cannot be universal. On the one hand, they are associated with the bearer of this norm (Who?), On the other hand, with the situation where this norm is applied (Where? When? Under what circumstances?).

) Norms associated with the development of personality. They are also conditional, that is, literally: they depend on conditions. But, strictly speaking, they also depend on who exactly evaluates compliance with this norm? On what theoretical or experimental basis is the norm itself derived? To what categories of people does it apply?

For the most part, the norms associated with personality development can be defined as describing the permissible range of normativity, and not rigidly and discretely fixing the fact of this normativity.

At the same time, such norms are dynamic in the temporal aspect, but their fixation is carried out taking into account the ages or certain statuses (age, family, social, professional, etc.). Looking ahead, it is appropriate to make the remark here that Jung emphasized the need to study personality, both from the standpoint of causes and from the standpoint of goals (why he became the way he became - what he strives for in the future).

But in addition to the above, there are also other criteria for deducing norms.

So it is possible to correlate the individual with the norms of mental health, an approach is possible associated with his adaptation in society, and having its deep basis either the concept of homeostasis, on the one hand, or the idea of active transformation of reality, on the other.

It is important that each approach will give its own list and its own interpretation of the norms.

Yu.A. Kleyberg notes that psychologists borrowed an understanding of the norm and deviations from medicine, in particular from psychiatry, that is, ultimately, from the dichotomy “norm - pathology”. Analyzing the concepts of "norm" and "deviation", the specified author highlights the following understandings of the norm:

a) the norm as a prescription or prohibition;

b) norm as an ideal, as compliance with the requirements of the social environment in which a person lives and acts;

c) the norm as a range of variability inherent in the majority of members of a given population;

d) the norm as compliance with one or another theoretical and psychological constructs.

Methods for studying deviant behavior

Sociological methods. Polls and interviews.

Among the sociological methods adopted by deviantologists are polls and interviews. The main stages of the survey include the preparation of the questionnaire, its pilot testing, sampling (with respect to representativeness), the survey itself, processing, analysis and interpretation of the results.

In relation to the preparation of the questionnaire, it is important to comply with several fundamental requirements. First, a thematic selection of questions that should correspond to the problem under study as much as possible. Secondly, an acceptable structure of questions - closed and open questions Answers to the first type of questions are easier to analyze, but the respondent's free opinion in this case is adjusted to the template, which reduces the informativeness of the answers. Free answers are informative and reflect the actual opinion of the respondent, but they are more difficult to analyze. It is also necessary to ensure that the questions do not push the respondent to any specific answer. Thirdly, the questions should be formulated in such a way that the respondent would easily understand them.

It is quite difficult to conduct interviews, but the information obtained as a result is usually much deeper and more interesting than in surveys.

Further, among the methods borrowed from sociologists, it is worth noting the method of document analysis. All documents can be roughly divided into two large groups - personal and official. Among the latter, a special group is made up of printed publications - the press. There are many ways to search for information in official documents. You can, for example, compare the competing points of view in print media on some issue (say, on the problem of drug addiction, or child homelessness). You can make a rating of deviantological problems mentioned in the press, or analyze the criminal chronicle separately. Official statistical information also applies to official documents.

Personal documents are, first of all, diaries, letters and photographs. The study of letters and photographs allows you to reconstruct the inner world of a person. In this case, the views, habits and problems of a person appear before the researcher in clean form. By studying personal documents, the scientist gets an invaluable opportunity to look at the problems of interest to him through the eyes of the one whom he is studying. Secondly, personal documents should include documents in the literal sense - certificates, certificates, characteristics, and so on.

Psychological methods. Questionnaires and tests.

With the help of test methods, predominantly mental properties, intellectual, professional and creative abilities are diagnosed, while characterological characteristics, personality traits, the structure of motivation, etc., are investigated through questionnaires. There is a fundamental difference between questionnaires and tests. First of all, the test compares the results of a given subject with the existing norm, and, consequently, the possibilities of its application as a method, the less, the less certain is something that is studied with its help. The questionnaire is a tool for informing the researcher Osubjective opinion the subject - even if, with his help, sufficiently "pure" psychological properties are studied indirectly.

The use of test and survey methods has a number of difficulties.

Difficulties associated with the reliability of the information received:

compliance of the methodology with the problem (it should measure exactly what is needed);

the adequacy of the respondents' answers (accuracy, sincerity, the absence of a socially desirable component in those);

the subjectivity of the researcher in the interpretation of the results obtained.

Experiment.

So-called " classic experiment»Consists in the following: the object is exposed to any factors that (according to the hypothesis) influence the phenomenon we are studying. The danger for the researcher here is that there is a temptation to believe that the changes that he fixes occur precisely because of his influence. The researcher should take into account factors other than those introduced by him, as well as take into account the possible effect of residual, unaccounted for factors. In this sense, many comparative empirical studies, strictly speaking, cannot be called an experiment.

So, if certain properties are compared in groups between which there is an obvious qualitative difference, then even if these properties also turn out to be reliably different, then the question of what exactly caused these differences will still remain unclear. Sometimes they try to call such investigations "the ascertaining experiment", but this is not true. Any experiment necessarily states some fact (even this: "Nothing has been established"), but not every study is an experiment, and some of them can only be called measuring- no more.

Observation.

Here the scientist becomes a direct participant in the processes that he studies. Plunging into the studied social reality, looking at the events through the eyes of the participant, the scientist must penetrate into the specifics of the worldview of the category of people of interest to him. It is worth noting that usually such information is inaccessible to the researcher, because to penetrate into the essence of the life world of any social group, one can only becoming his in it. In psychology, direct and indirect observation are distinguished. According to the nature of contacts with the objects under study, observation is divided into direct and indirect, according to the nature of interaction - included and non-included (from the outside) observation.

In general, observation is a general scientific method. It should be emphasized that it acquires and retains the status of scientificity only when it is not passive contemplation, and does not snatch unsystematic, random impressions from what it sees, moreover, interests, attitudes and prejudices passed through the filter.

The scientific nature of the observation is ensured by the following:

strict planning of what exactly is to be seen;

predetermined criteria for how to identify what you are looking for;

fixing the results of observation (according to a previously drawn up scheme).

Conversation.

The main purpose of the conversation is to obtain the necessary information about him and other persons in the process of communicating with the subject. During the conversation, an opinion is drawn up about the individual development of a person, his intellect, mental state, about his attitude to certain events, people. And although with the help of conversation it is far from always possible to obtain comprehensive information, nevertheless, it helps to get to know the subject better, to determine the most correct tactical line of behavior towards him.

Self-reports and self-descriptions.

When investigating issues related to deviant behavior, the analysis of such sources can provide the researcher with invaluable information. Moreover, it can be used in three broad aspects:

for diagnostic purposes in relation to a specific individual;

with diagnostic purposes related to the identification in such self-descriptions of the most typical features inherent in this category of people;

in a therapeutic sense - as a way of introspection.

Summing up in a conversation about the methods of studying deviant behavior, it should be said about the difference between qualitative and quantitative methods. They are especially effective on a large scale - when you need to reflect the state of large groups of people or the most general patterns. These methods include primarily surveys, formalized interviews, and the analysis of official documents.

Qualitative methods are deeper and aimed at detecting special ... The researcher is trying to identify the meaning that people put into their behavior and their experiences. The processing of data collected using qualitative methods implies their meaningful interpretation. In addition, however, a statistical analysis of the occurrence of any content categories can be carried out - this is how an inductive transition from single , special - To common, typical .

Theories of deviant behavior

social deviation deviant behavior

Attempts at a theoretical explanation of human nature were rooted in two fundamentally different foundations: one of them is nature, the other is society. The first is the basis for theories, where the main idea is the biological determination of human behavior, the second is its social determination. The most justified would seem general methodological approachseeking to take into account interactionall circumstances. Each theory introduces new research opportunities, and at least this enriches knowledge.

I propose to get acquainted with the most famous theories:

Biological theories

Cesare Lombroso's theory.Traditionally, the Italian scientist C. Lombroso is considered one of the founders of the biological direction.

Lombroso worked as a prison doctor for a number of years, which enabled him to summarize significant factual material. The main determinant of crime propensity, according to Lombroso, was hereditary biological factors(for example, a special structure of the skull), reinforced by environmental influences. At the same time, Lombroso considered the causes of deviance in the widest possible range: from climatic, natural and hereditary factors, to economic, cultural and gender. However, primacy, nevertheless, was given to factors of a hereditary biological nature. A significant place in his research is devoted to the analysis of family and kinship ties of criminals, within and between generations.

Lombroso's theory quickly gained significant popularity, but the subsequent development of sociology and psychology did not contribute to its maintenance. First of all, because the causal relationships were not traced to the end: it was not clear whether heredity determines the tendency to deviance, or other, external factors influencing, among other things, heredity.

There are many more biological theories, for example "Constitutional Theories", "Chromosomal Theory", "Endocrine Theory".

Constitutional theoriescan be considered a continuation of Lombroso's attempt to link deviance with physical and constitutional factors. The most famous work is "Typology of Personality", developed by Kretschmer (1925) and Sheldon (1954). According to the ideas of these authors, people can be divided into three types according to their psychophysical constitution: mesomorphic (athletic) type, ectomorphic (lean) and endomorphic (obese) type. Mesomorphs are more prone to dominance, activity, aggression and violence. Ectomorphs are described as timid, inhibited, and prone to loneliness and mental activity. Endomorphs are distinguished by good nature and a lively and cheerful disposition. But the theory was called too simplistic, and Kretschmer's typology was derived mainly from mentally ill people.

Chromosome theoryaggression and crime appeared in connection with the development of genetics. Studies have been conducted on individuals who have committed criminal acts. These studies confirmed a high degree of association between delinquency and the presence of an XYY chromosomal abnormality. As you know, the female chromosome set is formed by a combination of two X chromosomes. In males, this combination is represented by one X and one Y chromosome. But sometimes there is a combination of XYY - one extra male chromosome is added. Patricia Jacobs, who conducted a survey of prisoners in a number of UK prisons, found that the percentage of people with this kind of anomaly among prisoners is several times higher than among the general population. However, subsequent studies have shown that the presence of an extra Y chromosome is not directly associated with a high level of aggression. Rather, the matter is in the lower level of intellectual development of persons with this anomaly. In fact, they are not more prone to committing crimes and acts of aggression than people with the usual chromosome set, they are only more often caught at the crime scene and are punished, which explains the high percentage of them among prisoners.

Endocrine theorythis is another direction of biological theories of aggression, associated with the study of the role of hormonal influences on criminal and aggressive behavior. Back in 1924, the American scientist M. Schlapp, who studied the endocrine system of criminals, found that a third of the prisoners he examined suffer from emotional instability associated with diseases of the endocrine glands. Subsequently, the stability of sex differences in the manifestations of aggressiveness, regardless of nationality and culture, led scientists to think about the possible influence of androgens (male sex hormones) on aggressiveness. It is known that the level of tetrosterone in the body of men is more than ten times higher than that of women. Since tetrosterone affects the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, it would be possible to assume that it contributes to the development of a higher level of male aggression and propensity to crime. Numerous experiments to test this hypothesis have provided very contradictory information. On the one hand, enough evidence was collected to support the main assumption (the impact of gender differences). At the same time, there is practically no direct data confirming the hypothesis about the influence of androgens on deviance. Although the level of tetrosterone may play a role in the formation of the propensity for aggression, nevertheless, most researchers are inclined to think that other factors may play a much more important role in this. Most likely, tetrosterone affects the level of aggressiveness, interacting with a whole range of individual and social factors.

At the end of the description of biological theories, I will add that today most serious scientists come to the conclusion that a biological predisposition to various forms of deviance manifests itself only in the presence of a favorable influence of the social environment.

Sociological theories

Speaking about sociological theories, one should first of all mention Emile Durkheim, because the first significant sociological study touching on the problem of deviance should be considered his work Suicide ... Suicide is in fact aggressive behavior directed against the subject himself. Durkheim was the first to show that a deviant act (suicide) is the result of the relationship between society and the individual. The suicide rate is determined by the specifics of social relations, and not the personal qualities of people.

However, in addition to the actual study of suicide this work Durkheim is also of considerable methodological interest. He carried out an extensive statistical analysis of the patterns of suicide in certain localities, in different time, for different social strata and both genders. The analysis was accompanied by a critical analysis of some of the positions of his contemporaries and predecessors, and often served as a very convincing refutation of the theories that they constructed. The target for this, by the way, turned out to be the reasoning of the aforementioned Lombroso.

It is very important anomie conceptand the thesis that it is in this state that the greatest danger lurks for modern society. Anomie- this is a state of society when the previous system of regulatory norms and values has been destroyed, and a replacement has not yet been formed. This is closely related to Durkheim's view of a normal society.

A normal society requires a "consensus of minds" - a common system of norms, beliefs and values shared by members of society and regulating their lives. In a state of anomie, society is a field of collisions between the individual ambitions of its members and is governed by the law of power. This is due to the fact that each person, in the words of Durkheim, is "an abyss of desires." Only society can restrain these desires, and regulate their direction, because a person has no instinctive regulators. It is society that creates ideas about norm and deviance, which are blurred in a state of anomie.

A similar state is present in modern society, because most crimes, mental disorders and suicides are associated with it. In this regard, Durkheim pointed to the pathological nature of the development of civilization, since it is this development that stimulates the state of anomie.

Social tension theory.It is one of the most popular theories of deviant behavior. It was designed by R. Merton. In creating this theory, Merton used Durkheim's concept of anomie in relation to the problems of the sociology of crime.

The main idea of this theory is that the main cause of crime is the contradiction between the values that society aims at people and the possibilities of achieving them according to the rules established by society. The resulting social tension leads to the fact that a person who has failed to obtain certain values will react to this with one form or another of deviant behavior (including those associated with aggression and violence). Total Merton identified five types of reactionson the values established by society and the institutionalized means of achieving them (conformism, innovation, ritualism, retreat (retretism), rebellion). Traditionally, these five types of behavior are interpreted in relation to such a generally recognized cultural goal in modern society, which is the pursuit of material well-being. Education and career are considered to be the main socially acceptable means of achieving this goal.

The only "normal" behavior would be conformism, recognizing both ends and means. One of the deviant reactions to stress can be innovation... In this case, the subject recognizes social goals (for example, material well-being), but, being unable to achieve them using socially approved means (a successful career), uses his own means, which are often not approved by society (for example, criminal activity).

Ritualism- This is the non-recognition of goals when using institutionalized means to achieve them. For example: the subject does not consider himself capable of achieving social success, but continues to work hard in unpromising areas, without hope of any achievement.

Retreat- this is a denial of both goals and the means of achieving them, withdrawal from society. An example is the behavior of a person who uses drugs and thus tries obscure from society. Rebeldoes not recognize social ends and replaces them with his own, as well as means. For example, instead of economic benefits, a person may seek to destroy an unjust social system through violence.

Stress theory refers to the functional direction in sociological theorizing. It shows how some elements of the social structure can be socially dysfunctional due to the impossibility of realizing cultural goals.However, this theory explains less effectively the deviant behavior of privileged groups, since the social position of representatives upper strata society does not hinder, but, on the contrary, promotes success.

Subcultural theory... The founder of this trend can be considered T. Sellin, who published in 1938 the work Cultural Conflict and Crime ... In this work, Sellin considered the conflict between the cultural values of different communities as a criminogenic factor. On the basis of Sellin's theory, American sociologist A. Cohen developed his concept of subcultures.

Cohen, on the scale of small social groups, examined the peculiarities of the cultural values of criminal associations (gangs, communities, groupings). In these microgroups, a kind of mini-cultures (views, habits, skills, stereotypes of behavior, norms of communication, rights and obligations, punishment measures for violators of the norms developed by such a microgroup) - this phenomenon is called subcultures.

Subcultural theory pays special attention to the group (subculture) as the bearer of deviant ideas. There are subcultures that profess norms and values that are completely different from the generally accepted ones. People belonging to these subcultures build their behavior in accordance with group prescriptions, but dominant social groups define this behavior as deviant.

Cohen generalized the idea that most deviant groups are negative reflections of the culture of most of society.

The subcultural theory explaining deviant behavior by the socialization of the individual in the system of deviant values and norms does not explain why deviant norms and values manifest themselves in society, why some members of society accept a deviant value system, while others, being in the same conditions, deny it.

Conflict theory.Based on the premise that in any society there are inequalities in the distribution of resources and power. K. Marx is considered the founder of this trend. Conflict theorists highlight the principles by which society is organized to serve the interests of the wealthy and powerful in society, often at the expense of others. For many conflict theorists, the main source of deviance in Western societies is the capitalist economic system.

Although deviance is found at every level of society, the nature, degree, and punishment of deviance is often associated with the social-class position of the individual (Burke, Linichen, and Rossi 1980; Braithwaite 1981). Usually people from high society - rich, powerful, influential - play a major role in determining what is deviant and what is not.

Conflict theory emphasizes inequality in the distribution of power and wealth in society. Conflict theorists of the Marxist school view inequality as a product of the capitalist economy. However, scholars from other schools noted that inequalities in the distribution of power and privileges exist in all societies, regardless of the type of economy or political regime.

Psychological theories

Classical and modern psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis(it. Psychoanalyse) - a complex of psychological theories and methods of psychotherapy put forward by Sigmund Freud at the beginning of the XX century. This method has become widespread in Europe (since the beginning of the XX century), the USA (since the middle of the XX century) and Latin America (since the second half of the XX century). Subsequently, the ideas of Z. Freud were developed by such psychologists as A. Adler and K. Jung.

Psychoanalysis was suggested Freudas a scientific theory about the human psyche.

Psychoanalysis concept

The theory of human behavior, the first and one of the most influential theories of personality in psychology. Usually refers to the classical psychoanalysis created by Sigmund Freud, but also applies to any derivative (even a very different theory), such as Jung's analytical psychology or Adler's individual psychology, which they prefer to call "neopsychoanalysis".

A set of research methods for the main motives of a person. The fundamental subject of the study of psychoanalysis is the unconscious motives of behavior that originate in latent disorders. They are revealed through free associations expressed by the patient.

Method and methods of treatment of mental disorders based on the analysis of free associations, manifestations of transference and resistance, through the techniques of interpretation and elaboration. The goal of the psychoanalyst is to help free the patient from hidden mechanisms that create conflicts in the psyche, that is, from habitual patterns that are not suitable or create specific conflicts in the realization of desires and in adaptation to society.

Topical model of the mental apparatus

Unconscious- special psychic forces that lie outside of consciousness, but control human behavior.

Consciousness- one of the two parts of the psyche, perceived by the individual - determines the choice of behavior in the social environment, but not entirely, since the choice of behavior itself can be initiated by the unconscious. Consciousness and the unconscious are in antagonistic relations, in an endless struggle, the unconscious always wins. The psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle, which is modified into the reality principle, and when the balance is disturbed, a reset is carried out through the unconscious sphere.

Structural model of the psyche

Freud proposed the following structure of the psyche:

Ego ("I"), Superego ("Super-I"), Id ("It")

Defense mechanisms

Sigmund Freud identified several defense mechanisms of the psyche:

Substitution , Reactive education , Compensation , crowding out , Negation , Projection , Sublimation , Rationalization , Regression.

« Normal"Behavior will be in the event that the instinctive impulses" It "do not conflict with the normative requirements of the" Super-I "reflected in consciousness (" I "), giving rise to an internal conflict. Consciousness - "I" - trying to avoid conflict, is forced to resort to the sublimation of aggressive and sexual impulses. Sublimationis a mechanism for translating the dark, elemental energy of instincts into a culturally acceptable framework. For example, if a person is prone to aggression, he can “let off steam” doing hard physical labor or aggressive sports.

However, the pressure of subconscious drives on the "I" may be too strong to be completely sublimated. On the other hand, an immature, undeveloped “I” may be incapable of sublimation, which requires creativity. In this case, the person begins to feel anxiety due to the brewing internal conflict. In these cases, consciousness, in order to mitigate the conflict between "It" and "Super-I" and to protect itself from anxiety, uses defense mechanisms... Their action is associated with a distortion of reality and self-deception, thanks to which the consciousness is protected from traumatic and unacceptable experiences. As mentioned above, Freud described several basic defense mechanisms - these are repression, projection, substitution, rationalization, reactive formation, regression and denial... Let's take a closer look at each mechanism.

crowding out- This is the suppression of subconscious drives and experiences that pose a threat to self-consciousness and displacement of them into the sphere of the unconscious. In this case, a person is forced to spend a significant amount of psychic energy, but the suppressed drives still periodically "break through" into reality through reservations, dreams, etc.

Projection- it is attributing to others their own unacceptable experiences.

Substitution- this is the direction of the energy of attraction to a safer object.

Rationalization- this is what in everyday life is called self-justification. A person seeks to give a rational explanation for actions committed under the influence of instinctive drives.

Reactive educationis a more complex defense mechanism that includes two stages. In the first stage, the unacceptable experience is suppressed, and in the second, the opposite feeling is formed in its place.

Regressionis a return to childhood, early forms of behavior. As a rule, immature, infantile individuals resort to this type of defense mechanisms. However, normal adults in situations of mental overload can also use this defense mechanism.

A kind of "childish" reactions of the psyche can be considered negation... Let's say a person in a state of intoxication has committed a crime, and then refuses to believe it.

Freud argued that defense mechanisms operate on a subconscious level, and all people resort to them from time to time. In those cases when with their help it is not possible to reduce stress, neuroses arise - whiter or less noticeable disorders of normal mental activity. At the same time, people differ among themselves in their ability to sublimate and to control their drives. Much depends on the degree of development, maturity of the personality, the foundations of which are laid in early childhood... The roots of many neuroses and more severe disorders - psychoses - should, according to Freud, be sought in early childhood experiences.

Individual psychology of Adler

According to Adler, a baby is born with two basic feelings - inferiority and community with his own kind. He strives for excellence as compensation for his inferiority and the establishment of meaningful social relationships.

Compensation “on the useful side of life” (according to Adler) leads to the formation of a sense of self-worth, which presupposes the dominance of a sense of community over the individualistic desire for superiority. In the case of “compensation on the useless side of life,” the feeling of inferiority is transformed into an inferiority complex, which forms the basis of neurosis, or into a “superiority complex”. At the same time, Adler saw the roots of deviations not so much in the complexes themselves, as in the inability of the individual to establish adequate contact with environment... As an important factor in the formation of personality, Adler singles out the structure of the family. The child's place in it and the corresponding type of upbringing have a significant impact on the emergence of deviant behavior. For example, overprotection leads to the development of suspiciousness and an inferiority complex.

Jung's analytical psychology

A short list of concepts that are directly related to the study of deviant behavior:

Personality structure according to Jung:

Ego- the conscious mind.

Personal unconscious- suppressed conscious impressions, experiences when they appear that were too weak to make an impression at the level of consciousness.

Complexes- an organized thematic group of experiences that are attracted to the so-called core of the complex. The complex can seize power over the individual. Can be realized through associations, but not directly.

Collective unconscious- hidden memories inherited phylogenetically (refuted at the rational level by modern genetics). This is the innate foundation of the personality structure. Symptoms, phobias, illusions, and other irrational phenomena can arise from the rejection of unconscious processes.

Archetypes- a universal mental form containing an emotional element. The most developed archetypes can be considered as separate systems within the personality - persona, anima / animus, shadow.

A person- a mask worn in response to:

a) the requirements of social conventions;

b) internal archetypal needs.

This is a public personality, as opposed to his own personality, hidden behind an external manifestation in social behavior.

If the Ego is consciously identified with the Person, the person is aware and appreciates not his own feelings, but the role he has assumed.

Anima / animus- bisexual human nature. As an archetype arose with the constant coexistence of both sexes.

Shadow- the embodiment of the animal side of human nature. The projection of the Shadow outside is realized in the form of a devil or an enemy. The shadow is responsible for socially disapproved thoughts, feelings, actions.

Self- the archetype of integrity - the core of the personality, around which all systems are grouped. The goal of life is an ideal that has the property of unattainability. The archetype of the self is not evident until a person reaches middle age, when he begins to make efforts to shift the center of the personality from the conscious to the balance between him and the unconscious.

Installations- extraversion and introversion, one of which is dominant, while the second is unconscious.

Functions - thinking, feeling, sensation, intuition.(Thinking is rational; feeling is an evaluative function that determines the value of things, gives subjective experiences; sensation is a perceptual realistic function; intuition is perception based on unconscious processes and contents.)

Interaction of personality systems:

Systems can: compensateeach other; confrontand unite.

Compensation:

between extroversion and introversion,

between the ego and the anima of men / the animus of women.

Opposition

between the ego and the personal unconscious,

between ego and shadow,

between person and anima / animus,

between the person and the personal unconscious,

between the collective unconscious and the person.

Unification allows the components to create a qualitatively new one, aimed at integrating the personality (self).

The unity of opposites is achieved through transcendental function.

Personality dynamics.

Concept psychic energy- the manifestation of vital energy, the energy of the body as a biological system. This is a hypothetical construction that cannot be measured, but obeys the same physical laws as energy in the usual sense.

Mental values- the amount of energy invested in one or another element of the personality, a measure of tension (or strength in motivation and behavior management). It is possible to detect only the relative value of an element (in comparison with others, but not objectively, that is, only within a given personality).

Equivalence principle- if energy is spent on one thing, then it will appear in another (one value weakens, the other increases).

Entropy principle- the distribution of the energy of the psyche strives for balance. The state of ideal energy distribution is the self.

Jung personality development

The goal is self-realization, as the most complete differentiation and harmonious combination of all aspects of the personality. The new center is the self, instead of the old center, the ego.

Causality and Teleology- two approaches to the study of personality, one of which considers the reasons, the other - proceeds from goals, from what the person is moving towards. Jung promoted the idea that for a correct understanding of what drives a person's actions, it is necessary to use both approaches.

Stages of personality development:

Until the age of five - sexual values appear, and reach their peak in adolescence.

Youth and early adulthood - basic life instincts dominate, a person is energetic, passionate, dependent on others (even in the form of resistance to them).

The forties - a change in values - from biological to more cultural (culturally determined), a person is more introverted, less impulsive. Energy gives way to wisdom (both as a goal and as a tool for achieving it). Personal values are sublimated into social, religious, civil and philosophical symbols.

This period is both the most significant for the individual and the most dangerous if violations are observed in the transfer of energy to new values.

The merit of the Jungian approach to the interpretation of personality is the statement about the inner tendency of a person to develop in the direction of harmonious unity. (Disclosure of the original innate integrity.)

Erich Fromm

The main theme of Fromm's work is human loneliness caused by alienation from nature and from other people. This isolation is not found in animals.

This topic is closely related to the topic of freedom, which Fromm, in this regard, considers as a negative category. Any release leads to a greater sense of loneliness and alienation.

Consequently, (according to Fromm) two ways are possible - to unite with others on the basis of love and cooperation, or to seek obedience.

According to Fromm, any device (reorganization) of society is the implementation of an attempt to resolve basic human contradiction... It consists in the fact that man is simultaneously both a part of nature and separate from it - both an animal and a human being. That is, a person has both needs (animal) and self-awareness, reason, human experiences (man).

Fromm identifies five basic needs:

Need for connection with others- stems from the torn apart of man from the original unity with nature. Instead of the instinctive connections that animals have, humans are forced to create their own relationships, and the most satisfying are those based on productive love. (Mutual care, respect, understanding.)

The need for transcendence- the desire of man to rise above his animal nature, to become not a creature, but a creator. (With obstacles, a person becomes a destroyer.)

Need for rootedness- people want to feel that they are part of the world, belong to it. The healthiest manifestation is a sense of kinship with other people.

Need for identity- the need for the uniqueness of their individuality. If this need is not realized in creativity, then it can be realized in belonging to a group or in identification with another person. (Not being someone, but belonging to someone.)

The need for an orientation system- a system of reference points, a stable and consistent way of perceiving and understanding the world.

For Fromm, these needs are purely human in nature. Moreover, they are not generated by society (with one or another device), but arise evolutionarily.

The forms and methods of meeting these needs and the development of the individual are determined by a particular society. The adaptation of a person to society is a compromise between internal needs and external requirements.

Five types of social character,determining the way individuals relate to each other:

receptive - consuming,

exploitative,

storage,

market,

productive.

Later he put forward another dichotomous way of classifying characters - on biophilic(aimed at the living) and necrophilous(aiming at the dead). Fromm said that the only initial force is life, and the death instinct comes into play when the vital forces are frustrated.

According to Fromm, it is important that the character of the child is brought up in accordance with the requirements of a given society, so that he wants to preserve it. This is explained by the fact that, according to Fromm, any change in the social structure leads to violations in the social character of the individual. Its previous structure does not correspond to the new reality, which increases the feeling of alienation. The latter reinforces the danger of uncritical choice (or acceptance from others) of ways to escape loneliness.

Fromm's beliefs:

1) a person has an innate essential nature,

) society must exist in order for this nature to be realized,

) so far, no society has succeeded,

) but this is possible in principle.

Humanistic psychology

It proceeds from the fact that in the reaction of an individual to various external circumstances, the personal interpretation of the situation is essential. Depending on how exactly a person comprehends certain social interactions, he can act either "normally" or, on the contrary, "deviant". Attention is focused on the content of human consciousness: “How different views, views, attitudes,“ ideas ”affect human behavior. This forces us to address the problem of the general perception of the world, the most important component of which is the individual's value system.

Carl Rogers - "Human-Centered" Theory

Self-concept concept.Self-concept means: “… An organized, coherent conceptual gestalt built from perceptions of the characteristics of 'I' or 'me' and perceptions of the relationship of 'I' or 'me' to other people and various aspects of life, as well as the values associated with these perceptions. This gestalt is available to consciousness, although not necessarily always conscious. It is a fluid and changeable gestalt, it is procedural, but at every moment it forms a specific integrity. "

Organism- represents the locus of all experience of experiences - everything available to self-consciousness and constantly occurring in the body at any moment. The behavior of the individual depends on the “phenomenal field” (subjective reality), and not on the stimulus situation (external reality). The phenomenal field is constituted at every moment by conscious (symbolized) and unconscious (non-symbolized) experiences.

I AM- a part of the phenomenal field, differentiated by taking into account the introduced values and norms.

According to Rogers' theory, in addition to the real "I" as such, its structure, there is an ideal "I" - what a person would like to be. When the symbolized experiences that form the self reliably reflect the experiences of the organism, a person is said to be adapted, mature, and fully functioning. Such a person accepts the full range of organismic experiences without feeling threatened or anxious. He is capable of realistic thinking. The incongruity between self and body makes individuals feel threatened and anxious. Their behavior becomes defensive, their thinking becomes limited and rigid. Rogers' theory implies, however, two other manifestations of congruence. One of them is the presence or absence of congruence between the subjectively perceived reality and external reality - the world as it is. Another is the degree of correspondence between the real and the ideal "I". In the event of significant discrepancies, the person is dissatisfied and ill-adapted.

Thus, according to Rogers, the body has a basic tendency - the desire to actualize, assert, strengthen itself. This actualizing tendency is selective, aimed at those aspects of the environment that contribute to the constructive movement of the individual towards actualization, towards completeness and integrity. That is, self-actualization in itself is a motivating factor that induces activity by force, since the goal of every person's life is to become a self-actualized, integral person.

Rogers emphasizes two leading needs: positive attitude and self-attitude. The first develops due to the care of parents in childhood, the second is formed due to receiving a positive attitude from others.

Rogers focuses on how, especially in childhood, assessments of an individual by others increase the discrepancy between the experiences of the organism and the experiences of the "I". In the case of only a positive attitude, self-attitude will not be conditioned by anything, and will remain in agreement with the organismic assessment. But, since the assessments from others are not always positive, there is a dissonance between the organismic assessment and the experiences of the "I". Unworthy experiences tend to be excluded from the self-concept, even if they are organismically valid. Consequently, the self-concept is excluded from the sphere of organismic experiences - the individual (child) tries to meet the expectations of others. The self-concept, over time, becomes more distorted due to other people's assessments.

The organic experience of experiences contradicts the self-concept, and is experienced as a threat, generates anxiety. To defend the self-concept, such threatening experiences are given a distorted symbolization. Rogers argues, in this way, that people often maintain and try to reinforce an inappropriate self-image. In this case, the mechanism is either the exclusion of negative information about oneself from consciousness, or, on the other hand, data that contradict a negative assessment of oneself are interpreted by the individual in such a way that the possibility of this negative assessment still persists.

Behaviorism

Skinner

For a psychologist, the only real fact can only be human behavior - that which lends itself to measurement and analysis.

Behavior always has a reason. This reason is a stimulus - something that from the outside pushes a person to action. The actions themselves are carried out according to the "stimulus-response" scheme, which Skinner called respondent behavior. However, a person, thanks to his thinking abilities, is also capable of operant behavior. ( Operant- a spontaneous reaction without the action of the stimulus that causes it.)

All human behavior is a more or less complex set of various persistent or short-term reactions. In general, a person strives to receive positive and avoid negative incentives. This is the basis of the learning mechanism - the consolidation in the mind of typical reactions to typical stimuli. The reinforced behavior is reinforced and becomes "natural."

According to the behaviorist direction, all human behavior is a set of various stable or short-term reactions. A person strives to receive positive and avoid negative incentives. The mechanism is based on this. learning- consolidation in the mind of typical reactions to typical stimuli. The reinforced behavior is reinforced and becomes "natural" as discussed above.

From this point of view, deviance is the result of learning associated with a different set of stimuli in the environment of each person. A well-to-do family and a positive environment stimulate positive personal development, and vice versa. Exceptions are explained by the action of secondary stimuli. Thus, deviant behavior is taught like any other behavior.

Conclusion

So, we have determined that deviant (deviant) behavior is the behavior of an individual or a group that does not correspond to generally accepted norms, as a result of which these norms are violated by them. Deviant behavior is a consequence of an unsuccessful process of socialization of a person: as a result of a violation of the processes of identification and individualization of a person, such an individual easily falls into a state of "social disorganization" when cultural norms, values and social relationships are absent, weaken or contradict each other. This condition is called anomie and is the main cause of deviant behavior.

It should be noted that there are also various interrelated factors that determine the genesis of deviant behavior.

Namely:

individual factor,acting at the level of psychobiological prerequisites for deviant behavior, which impede the social and psychological adaptation of the individual;

pedagogical factor,manifested in defects in school and family education;

psychological factor, revealing the unfavorable features of the interaction of the individual with his closest environment in the family, on the street, in the team and which, first of all, manifests itself in the active-selective attitude of the individual to the preferred communication environment, to the norms and values of his environment, to the psychological and pedagogical influences of the family, school , the public to self-regulation of their behavior;

social factor,determined by social, economic, political, etc. conditions of the existence of society.

Given that deviant behavior can take a variety of forms (both negative and positive), it is necessary to study this phenomenon using a differentiated approach.

Bibliography

1.Andreeva V.E. Deviant behavior of adolescents. Graduation project.

2.Shafranov-Kutsev G.F. Sociology.

.Khomich A.V. Psychology of deviant behavior.

.Frolov S.S. Sociology.

.Kleyberg Yu.A. Psychology of deviant (deviant) behavior.

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