The development of world history was not linear. At each stage there were events and periods that can be called “turning points.” They changed both geopolitics and people’s worldviews.

1. Neolithic revolution (10 thousand BC - 2 thousand BC)

The term “Neolithic revolution” was introduced in 1949 by the English archaeologist Gordon Childe. Child called its main content the transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (farming and cattle breeding). According to archaeological data, the domestication of animals and plants occurred in different time independently in 7-8 regions. The earliest center of the Neolithic revolution is considered to be the Middle East, where domestication began no later than 10 thousand years BC.

2. Creation of the Mediterranean civilization (4 thousand BC)

The Mediterranean region was the birthplace of the first civilizations. The appearance of the Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia dates back to the 4th millennium BC. e. In the same 4th millennium BC. e. Egyptian pharaohs consolidated the lands in the Nile Valley and their civilization quickly expanded across the Fertile Crescent to the east coast Mediterranean Sea and further throughout the Levant. This made Mediterranean countries such as Egypt, Syria and Lebanon part of the cradle of civilization.

3. Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VII centuries)

The Great Migration of Peoples became a turning point in history, defining the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Scientists are still arguing about the causes of the Great Migration, but its consequences turned out to be global.

Numerous Germanic (Franks, Lombards, Saxons, Vandals, Goths) and Sarmatian (Alans) tribes moved to the territory of the weakening Roman Empire. The Slavs reached the Mediterranean and Baltic coasts and settled part of the Peloponnese and Asia Minor. The Turks reached Central Europe, the Arabs began their campaigns of conquest, during which they conquered the entire Middle East to the Indus, North Africa and Spain.

4. Fall of the Roman Empire (5th century)

Two powerful blows - in 410 by the Visigoths and in 476 by the Germans - crushed the seemingly eternal Roman Empire. This jeopardized the achievements of ancient European civilization. A crisis Ancient Rome did not come suddenly, but matured from within for a long time. The military and political decline of the empire, which began in the 3rd century, gradually led to the weakening of centralized power: it could no longer manage the sprawling and multinational empire. For changing to the ancient state Feudal Europe arrived with its new organizing center - the “Holy Roman Empire”. Europe plunged into the abyss of turmoil and discord for several centuries.

5. Schism of the church (1054)

In 1054, the final split of the Christian Church into Eastern and Western occurred. Its reason was the desire of Pope Leo IX to obtain territories that were subordinate to Patriarch Michael Cerullarius. The result of the dispute was mutual church curses (anathemas) and public accusations of heresy. The Western Church was called Roman Catholic (Roman Universal Church), and the Eastern Church was called Orthodox. The path to the Schism was long (almost six centuries) and began with the so-called Acacian schism of 484.

6. Little Ice Age (1312-1791)

The beginning of the Little Ice Age, which began in 1312, led to an entire environmental catastrophe. According to experts, during the period from 1315 to 1317, almost a quarter of the population died out in Europe due to the Great Famine. Hunger was a constant companion of people throughout the Little Ice Age. During the period from 1371 to 1791, there were 111 famine years in France alone. In 1601 alone, half a million people died in Russia from famine due to crop failures.

However, the Little Ice Age gave the world more than just famine and high mortality. It also became one of the reasons for the birth of capitalism. Coal became the source of energy. For its extraction and transportation, workshops with hired workers began to be organized, which became a harbinger of the scientific and technological revolution and the birth of a new formation public organization- capitalism. Some researchers (Margaret Anderson) also associate the settlement of America with the consequences of the Little Ice Age - people traveled for better life from “God-forsaken” Europe.

7. Age of Great Geographical Discoveries (XV-XVII centuries)

Age of the Greats geographical discoveries radically expanded the ecumene of humanity. In addition, it created the opportunity for the leading European powers to make maximum use of their overseas colonies, exploiting their human and Natural resources and making fabulous profits from it. Some scholars also directly link the triumph of capitalism with transatlantic trade, which gave rise to commercial and financial capital.

8. Reformation (XVI-XVII centuries)

The beginning of the Reformation is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his “95 Theses” to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church. In them he spoke out against the existing abuses of the Catholic Church, in particular against the sale of indulgences.
The Reformation process gave rise to many so-called Protestant Wars, which seriously influenced the political structure of Europe. Historians consider the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 to be the end of the Reformation.

9. The Great French Revolution (1789-1799)

The French Revolution, which broke out in 1789, not only transformed France from a monarchy into a republic, but also summed up the collapse of the old European order. Its slogan: “Freedom, equality, brotherhood” excited the minds of revolutionaries for a long time. French revolution not only laid the foundations for the democratization of European society - it appeared as a cruel machine of senseless terror, the victims of which were about 2 million people.

10. Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)

Napoleon's irrepressible imperial ambitions plunged Europe into chaos for 15 years. It all started with the invasion of French troops in Italy, and ended with an inglorious defeat in Russia. Being a talented commander, Napoleon, nevertheless, did not disdain the threats and intrigues with which he subjugated Spain and Holland to his influence, and also convinced Prussia to join the alliance, but then unceremoniously betrayed its interests.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Italy, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and a number of other small territorial entities appeared on the map. The commander's final plans included the division of Europe between two emperors - himself and Alexander I, as well as the overthrow of Britain. But the inconsistent Napoleon himself changed his plans. The defeat in 1812 by Russia led to the collapse of Napoleonic plans in the rest of Europe. The Treaty of Paris (1814) returned France to its former 1792 borders.

11. Industrial revolution (XVII-XIX centuries)

The Industrial Revolution in Europe and the USA made it possible to move from an agricultural society to an industrial one over the course of only 3-5 generations. The invention of the steam engine in England in the second half of the 17th century is considered to be the conventional beginning of this process. Over time, steam engines began to be used in production, and then as a propulsion mechanism for steam locomotives and steamships.
The main achievements of the era of the Industrial Revolution can be considered the mechanization of labor, the invention of the first conveyors, machine tools, and the telegraph. The advent of railways was a huge step.

Second World War took place on the territory of 40 countries, and 72 states took part in it. According to some estimates, 65 million people died in it. The war significantly weakened Europe's position in global politics and economics and led to the creation of a bipolar system in world geopolitics. Some countries were able to achieve independence during the war: Ethiopia, Iceland, Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Indonesia. In countries of Eastern Europe occupied by Soviet troops, socialist regimes were established. World War II also led to the creation of the UN.

14. Scientific and technological revolution (mid-20th century)

The scientific and technological revolution, the onset of which is usually attributed to the middle of the last century, made it possible to automate production, entrusting the control and management of production processes to electronics. The role of information has seriously increased, which also allows us to talk about an information revolution. With the advent of rocket and space technology, human exploration of near-Earth space began.

A year ago, we listened to the New Year's chimes with the feeling that we were living in a completely new country, but 2015 in terms of intensity will give odds to even the stormy 2014. After the autumn terrorist attacks, the start of the operation in Syria, and the crisis in relations with Turkey, the Russian news agenda is merging with the global geopolitical one. And against this background, the events of the beginning of the year seem to have happened a long time ago. Lenta.ru recalls the important milestones of the past year.

Minsk agreements February 12

The stormy autumn of 2015 somewhat overshadowed the events of the beginning of the year, but let’s not forget that the negotiations in Minsk became one of the largest diplomatic “gatherings” in history. last years. German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Francois Hollande visited Kyiv and Moscow before Minsk, and the German head of state also visited Washington for consultations with US President Barack Obama. The leaders of the Normandy Four - Russian President Vladimir Putin, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko, Merkel and Hollande - met continuously in the Minsk Palace of Independence for 16 hours.

By the end of the year, it can be stated that the agreement worked out with such difficulty is de facto not working. The ceasefire is constantly violated by both sides, the exchange of prisoners on the basis of the “all for all” principle has not been carried out, and local elections in the territory of the self-proclaimed DPR and LPR have been postponed to February 2016.

Murder of Boris Nemtsov

Photo: Vasily Shaposhnikov / Kommersant

Political leaders of this level have probably never been killed in Russia. The former deputy prime minister in the government of Sergei Kiriyenko, one of the most media characters in the opposition camp, who aroused the sympathy of not only his comrades-in-arms, but also his opponents, was shot dead on the night of February 28 on the Bolshoi Moskvoretsky Bridge. The killers have not yet been identified. After this tragedy, the opposition “Spring” march, planned for March 1, turned into a march in memory of Nemtsov - the most massive “street” event in Moscow last year.

An irreparable loss for RPR-PARNAS: Nemtsov was the most famous among the co-chairs of the party, it was thanks to him that the Parnasovites entered the Yaroslavl Regional Duma in 2013, and it was Nemtsov’s deputy mandate that would provide the party with the right to nominate candidates for elections to the State Duma without collecting signatures. So in the 2016 parliamentary elections, the opposition will have a hard time without Nemtsov’s charisma and popularity.

Postponement of elections to the State Duma

Photo: Dmitry Dukhanin / Kommersant

“Hour X” for the Russian political establishment shifted overnight from December 2016 to September 18. The idea was proposed in May by the LDPR; after short inter-factional consultations, it was formalized in the form of a bill, submitted to the State Duma and adopted by a majority vote. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation was persuaded for the longest time, but was never persuaded: the leader of the Communist Party Gennady Zyuganov agreed to compromise option- October-November, so that the campaign period and debates fall in the autumn, and not during the holidays and the “velvet season”. In the end, the bill was passed without the participation of the communists, who, in turn, complained about it to the Constitutional Court, but to no avail.

There have still been no federal elections in September in Russia, so no one knows what effect moving the date will have on the balance of power in the new parliament. Quite recently, it was believed that the opposition might not get enough votes: the communist electorate would go to their dachas to dig potatoes, while the liberal electorate would not yet return from overseas seas. However, after the ban on flights to Egypt and Turkey, the version with the seas is bursting at the seams.

Syrotsid from the Ministry of Agriculture

Photo: Office of Rosselkhoznadzor for the Belgorod region / RIA Novosti

A spectacle worthy of a surrealist: gourmet “sanctioned” cheeses, tomatoes, peaches and even geese fell under the bulldozers - all those products that have been prohibited from being imported into Russia since August 2014 and which nevertheless continued to flow in a thin stream across the border into the refrigerators of home-grown gourmets .

The grand disposal began on August 6, it was proposed by the head of the Ministry of Agriculture, Alexander Tkachev, and the corresponding decree was signed by President Vladimir Putin. The crush of cheeses has more than once caused protests from politicians and social activists; the destruction of food in Russia looks too grotesque.

Victory of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation in the gubernatorial elections Irkutsk region

Communist Sergei Levchenko, who had already applied for the post of head of the region in 1997 and 2001, broke the mold of “election control” last fall. Not only did he enter the second round with the United Russia vice-governor of the Irkutsk region on September 13, which has never happened in Russia since the restoration of elections for regional heads in 2012, Levchenko also won this second round, gaining 56.4 percent of the votes voters. After this, it became somehow even inconvenient to talk about the predetermined election results.

Military operation in Syria

Photo: press service of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation

It has been whispered for a long time that Russia will play the Syrian card, but final decision was adopted only on September 30: on this day the Federation Council officially approved the start of the operation. There can be no doubt about the importance of this event: according to the FOM, 23 percent of Russians consider the war in Syria and the bombing of the terrorist bases of the Islamic State organization (IS, a terrorist organization banned in Russia by a court decision) to be the main event of 2015, not only in the all-Russian, but also on a global scale.

But how will this military operation affect the Russian domestic policy, it’s still difficult to judge. Will President Putin expect new laurels as the chief fighter against terrorism? An application for this was made during his speech at the UN General Assembly, when Putin called for the formation of a global anti-terrorist coalition. We will receive answers to these questions in the new year.

Terrorist attack on board A321

Photo: Mohamed Abd El Ghany / Reuters

A Kogalymavia plane flying from Egypt to St. Petersburg crashed on the Sinai Peninsula in northern Egypt on October 31. On board were seven crew members and 217 passengers, including small children. The youngest passenger, Darina Gromova, was only ten months old. In the first days after the tragedy, a huge number of versions of what happened were expressed, but the worst one was confirmed - a terrorist attack. It is now known that the plane was blown up by a low-power bomb, which the terrorists placed under one of the seats at the end of the cabin on the starboard side. By the end of December, Egypt began to deny the version of a terrorist attack, but it was already too late: flights to the country were suspended since November 6, Russian tourists were promptly removed from the region, and the resorts traditionally popular among Russians were empty.

Goodbye resorts!

The crash of a Russian Su-24 bomber on the Syrian border led to a whole chain of events: relations with Turkey immediately deteriorated, sanctions were introduced, including a food embargo, and Russian-Turkish cultural centers were closed. But perhaps the most serious thing for domestic Russian life will be the stop of tourist trips to Turkey. Inexpensive all-inclusive resort tours to a country with good service and a guaranteed warm climate have become an essential element of the middle-class consumer basket over the past ten years. And the most popular destinations were Türkiye and Egypt. Now they will no longer exist, and not all Russians will be able to replace them with tours to Europe, which is rapidly becoming more expensive as the ruble depreciates.

Energy blockade of Crimea

Photo: Viktor Korotaev / Kommersant

The attempt at a food blockade of the peninsula, undertaken in the fall by Crimean Tatar nationalists, turned out to be child's play compared to the attempt to turn off the electricity in Crimea. The peninsula was left without electricity on the night of November 22 as a result of the explosion of power transmission towers that supplied electricity from Ukraine. Prior to this, on the night of November 20, the supports of two other power lines were destroyed in the same way. No one took responsibility for the explosions, but the approaches to the destroyed structures were blocked by representatives of the Right Sector banned in Russia and the unrecognized Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar people.

It turned out that an energy blockade is a serious weapon in winter, even in such a mild, almost Mediterranean climate as the Crimean one. However, the Russian authorities reacted almost with lightning speed: already on December 2, an energy bridge was launched on the peninsula, the first line of which began to supply electricity from the Krasnodar Territory. And on the night of December 8, energy supplies from Ukraine through the Kherson region were restored. Nevertheless, images of Crimea living by candlelight will remain one of the brightest in the past year.

Return of the “Khodorkovsky factor”

Photo: imago stock&people / Global Look

The former head of YUKOS, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, when released from prison two years ago after being pardoned by President Putin, promised not to engage in politics. However, he couldn’t resist. On December 9, at a press conference, the former oligarch said that after the death of his mother (Marina Filippovna died in August 2014), he did not consider himself bound by “apolitical” obligations. Before this, Khodorkovsky had already offered himself as a “president of the transition period.” Some time later, a case was opened against him on suspicion of involvement in the murder of the mayor of Nefteyugansk, Vladimir Petukhov, in 1998.

This is not the only mention of the “Khodorkovsky factor” in Russian politics over the past year. Back in 2014, based on the claims of former Yukos shareholders, decisions were made on compensation that Russia must pay: 1.86 billion euros according to the decision of the ECHR and an unheard-of amount of 50 billion dollars according to the decision of the Hague Arbitration.

In June, bailiffs in Belgium and France began seizing accounts and auditing Russian state property to pay these compensations. The arrests were lifted, but the residue remained. In Russia, just in case, they passed a law in this regard, according to which decisions international courts may not be fulfilled if they contradict the Constitution.

ANALYSIS OF A POLITICAL EVENT AS A FORM OF INDEPENDENT WORK OF A STUDENT

Due to their age, students, as a rule, already have some political experience and are sufficiently informed. They want to know not at the level of lecture notes, but deeper: to understand what is happening in the country and the world; understand the politics of the state of which they are citizens; find answers to complex questions of your political existence, clarify your political position; make any (personal) political decision. Our task is to help them with this.

The teaching of political science is also affected by the influence of purely ordinary, often negatively colored ideas (“politics is evil”, “not for average minds”, “democracy is the power of the people”, etc.) and every now and then heard maxims such as: “ I am out of politics." These features of the political socialization of students require from the teacher of the organization not the passive assimilation of ready-made knowledge, but active search educational activity at the level of practicing the skills that most students already have as a result of everyday experience political analysis.

They are given the task: with the assistance of the teacher, try to combine theory and practice, master the skills of political analysis, which neither a professional politician nor an ordinary voter going to the polls can do without.

This task is first solved by the lecturer when revealing such a “policy-forming” concept as “social interest”. Students already encounter it in sociology when studying the topic “Social Stratification.” And on the basis of their life observations they can identify the essential interests of various social groups arising from their position in the social-class structure of society. Students understand that politics is a struggle of interests only on an intuitive level; by giving examples from real political practice of the past and present, they are able to complement the teacher’s story. This is the first step towards mastering the skills of political analysis. It is important to show at the first lecture that any political phenomenon affects the real interests of people. To be out of politics means not to be aware of your interests and not be able to defend them.

The seminar allows you to practice and consolidate this skill to some extent. For these purposes, it seems to us, the method of analyzing specific political situations (case studies) is best suited. Without repeating the characteristics of this teaching technology, known from the methodological literature, we note the features of its application in seminar lesson in political science.

1. The very concept of “political situation” is one of the main ones in political science. A political situation is a certain fixed current event, situation, phenomenon. Changing the political situation is the essence political processes. Analysis of political situations in development, and rather long-term ones, their comparison and generalization provides the basis for constructing political forecasts and practical recommendations.

The political situation is made up of the order (correlation) of the alignment of socio-political forces in society, taking into account their real weight, the nature of their interaction, as well as factors external to the political struggle - economic indicators, foreign policy, even natural phenomena and disasters.

2. To analyze the political situation, students are offered the following plan (students are introduced to it during the lectures).

2) characterize their social interests, find out their political orientations, study program guidelines (if we are talking about political parties and social movements);

6) understand who may benefit (not benefit) from this situation and its change;

7) predict the political consequences of this event, that is, what changes may further actions of all interested parties lead to;

8) determine one’s own position in a given situation, dictated by conscious interest, in other words, develop one’s own political decision, which could form the basis of the student’s real political behavior when he becomes one of the participants in a political event.

3. Students select a situation for analysis independently or at the prompting of the teacher. At the same time, you should not provide students with ready-made material (have cases for all occasions). Why? First, political life is dynamic. It will be much more interesting to discuss current events that affect the everyday interests of people, including the students themselves. Secondly, searching and collecting the maximum possible amount of information about an event becomes a good form of independent work for students, allowing them to operate with various sources and means of such information. Thirdly, the teacher always has a certain set of cases that he gives during lectures, which makes it easier for the student to analyze his own examples according to the proposed scheme. “The task of a student or listener is to get ready to work with information in a project mode, and not in the current mode of a chronicler,” notes N.P. Sashchenko. “The listener is not required to memorize all the facts and figures. He must learn from a large amount of information... to see a trend, grasp a direction, feel the nuances and outline the main algorithm of actions (1,485).

4. Sometimes students choose a historical event to analyze. This is justified with different points vision. Firstly, students themselves establish interdisciplinary connections; secondly, they remember and expand their knowledge of history; thirdly, they always have a sufficient amount of information at their disposal; fourthly, there are already established assessments of this event both in science and in the public consciousness. However, this choice should not be abused, so that the specificity of the political science approach itself does not slip away.

5. Sometimes, in order to set the tone and add intrigue to the discussion, the teacher allows students to analyze an “invented” event that did not happen, but its occurrence is possible and even more desirable, for example, the students themselves are vitally interested in it (increasing scholarships, introducing certain benefits for admission to university, etc.). Such events, as practice shows, are discussed more lively, and they help students better understand and formulate “their” interest. Thus, already in the classroom, the process of political socialization of the student takes place.

6. For analysis, it is better to take not just any event (the vacation of the president of the country is also a political event), but one that is associated with the adoption of a law or other legal act. Firstly, this is how students begin to understand the transient, socially determined nature of law, that any law is the result of interests colliding in political struggle, and learn to recognize these interests; secondly, for political scientists, those political situations and relationships that arise as a result of the implementation of certain political decisions have great practical and heuristic value.

7. The teacher can draw attention to the relevance of political forecasts. At the same time, taking into account students’ knowledge of history, it is useful to use the method of historical analogies when answering paragraph 7 of the plan for analyzing a political event. Thus, students may be interested in the teacher’s message that the bloody events in Moscow in October 1993 and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviets could have been predicted back in 1988, by comparing the slogans of “perestroika” with the slogans of the “democratic counter-revolution” of the early 1920s. x y.y. After this, students independently find historical analogies to explain modern political events (usually connecting the Caucasian War of the 19th century and the entry of Russian troops into Chechnya in 1994).

8. Although the case study method is not a game method, there are game elements in it. The teacher, with appropriate preparation of students, can invite them, in the process of discussing the situation in a microgroup, to simulate the work of a parliamentary committee, and we sometimes present a general group discussion as parliamentary hearings. In this case, students in their microgroups can take on the roles of members and leaders of parliamentary factions.

If students know the methods of political technologies, the task can be expanded by asking them to think through additional measures to support the political decisions developed in the microgroup. Thus, along with analytical work, students can design their own case and even simulate it in practice as part of an educational business game.

All this makes it possible to recreate in a classroom setting the atmosphere of a real political struggle with a clash of interests, with the only difference being that if political decisions become law for everyone, then in the classroom a personal choice is born with which the student will enter the world of politics.

Mastering the basic skills of political analysis helps students take an active life position, without which becoming a civil society in Russia.

Literature

1. Political science. M., RAGS. 2004.

Published: Case study method in a political science course // Science - agro-industrial production and education: Materials of the International scientific and practical conference dedicated to the 75th anniversary of the UGAVM - March 16-17, 2005: Sat. scientific tr. - Troitsk: UGAVM, 2005. P.203-206

Preview:

Guidelines for implementation

independent work “Analysis of the political situation”

Choose a situation that affects the everyday interests of people, including yourself (for example, the cancellation of discounted travel cards). You need to find and collect as much information as possible about the event from various sources and media of such information: newspapers, magazines, analytical programs, the Internet, etc. It is possible to analyze an “invented” event that did not happen, but its occurrence is possible and even more desirable, for example, you yourself are vitally interested in it (increasing scholarships, introducing certain benefits when entering a university, etc.).

For analysis, it is better to take an event that is associated with the adoption of a law or other legal act.

Analyze the political situation according to the following plan.

1) Reveal everything social groups, organizations, political forces whose interests are directly or indirectly affected by this event;

2) characterize their social interests, find out their political orientations, study program settings;

3) determine their political weight, that is, the volume and quality of resources political influence, at their disposal, in relation to the existing political system;

4) identify who is blocking with whom and for what reason;

5) determine the influence of all external factors;

6) understand who benefits (does not benefit) from this situation and its change;

7) predict what changes further actions of all interested parties may lead to;

8) determine your own position in a given situation, dictated by conscious interest and the form of your own participation in it.

While discussing the situation in a microgroup, simulate the work of a parliamentary committee. In this case, in your microgroups you can take on the roles of members and leaders of parliamentary factions. Before the lesson, it is necessary to study the regulations of committee meetings of the State Duma of the Russian Federation and parliamentary hearings, distribute roles, prepare speeches for a group discussion, which will be held according to the model of parliamentary hearings

Consider additional measures to support the political decisions developed in the microgroup and to promote them, using various political technologies for this.

Use these guidelines to prepare political information.

• Is politics a noble pursuit or a “dirty business”?
• Why can't society live normally without power?
• Are political parties useful?
• Can the average citizen influence politics?

Policy area. This topic gives an idea of ​​the political life of society. We hear the word “political” every day: political organization, political club. Newspapers and radio talk about politics, political news. The word "political" means "relating to politics, to the implementation of politics."

What is politics? This word is of Greek origin, and it meant the art of government, state affairs. And in our time, the word “politics” has become broader in meaning. In previous topics it was said that society has a complex structure. Various relationships develop between different social classes, large groups of people occupying a certain position in society, between nations, and states. Politics is the name given to activities related to relations between large social groups, social strata, and nations. But you already know what this relationship covers various areas, for example economics. Thus, between the feudal lord who owns the land and the exploited landless peasant there are economic relations. And if relations between social groups concern power and the state, then there are relations in the sphere of politics. This means that politics is participation in the affairs of the state: determining the form of the state, tasks, and the content of its activities. (You will get acquainted with the material about the state in the next paragraph.)

Remember how states arose in Ancient world(Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome) and in the Middle Ages. State power allowed slave owners and feudal lords to subjugate masses of slaves and peasants to their will.

In different social groups, in accordance with their position, different attitudes towards the state and government arise. Hence the struggle for influence on government affairs. All this is the sphere of politics.

Political power. When we talk about power in general, we understand it this way: someone exercises power, that is, rules, controls, gives orders, and someone obeys, carries out these orders. We encounter such relationships in life all the time: for example, between an officer and a soldier, a traffic police inspector and a car driver, a teacher and a student. Power in these cases is not unlimited; it is limited to strictly defined functions of an officer, inspector, teacher. But within the framework of these functions, each of the named employees has the right to give orders, instructions, make demands, and the soldier, or driver, or student is obliged to obey these demands. When necessary, those in power can impose sanctions (that is, punish those who do not follow orders, or perhaps reward them for faithful compliance).

Political power extends to the entire society, its orders, directives (guidelines), requirements do not apply to individuals, but to large social groups, to everyone living within the borders of a given state. In turn, all those to whom the demands of power apply are obliged to fulfill them; those individuals or groups who rule have the opportunity to rely on the power of the state and, if necessary, force them to submit to their will, using the courts, the police, the army. Of course, it is better if the rulers have authority and the population readily submits to their demands.

Political power plays a big role in any modern society. The tasks it performs affect various areas of social relations. Exactly political power exercises leadership over society as a whole. It determines the main directions of the country's development, develops and makes decisions aimed at eliminating pressing problems. The authorities carry out day-to-day management of the most important processes occurring in society. The tasks performed by the authorities include maintaining stability and preventing social upheavals that pose a threat to the life and well-being of citizens.

So, power - essential element public organization. It allows, if necessary, to force large masses of people to carry out certain tasks and decisions. Therefore, in society there is a struggle for power and its use to carry out this or that policy..

Political organizations. In its desire to influence state power, each social group proceeds from its own interests. Of course, each person has personal interests, but large groups have common, group interests. Let us recall the contradictions that capitalism generated at the dawn of its development. If workers are forced to sell their labor power, then they are all interested in selling it at a higher price, i.e., getting more wages. Capitalists, on the contrary, sought to make large profits and, therefore, pay workers less. In this case, the struggle between workers and capitalists is economic. But when the interests of workers or capitalists want to be carried out, realized through state power, then the struggle between them moves into the realm of politics. Politics are goals and means of achieving them, which are aimed at implementing the interests of large groups of people through the state.

Who expresses the interests of this or that social group? Who determines the goals and methods of fighting for the common interests of the people included in this group? Can, for example, all the workers of the country get together and determine the tasks and methods of fighting for their interests? Or are they all capitalists? Obviously this is impossible. And not everyone wants to do this.

Active representatives of various social groups unite into political organizations that express the interests of these groups and participate in political life. Various public associations, clubs, unions, mass movements set themselves certain goals and strive to influence the government in one way or another. Some of these movements solve limited problems and do not last long. Political parties play the largest role in political struggle. How are they different from other organizations?

Firstly, a political party strives not only to participate in political life, but also to gain power or participate in the exercise of power in order, using the capabilities of power, to achieve its goals.

Secondly, a political party, unlike temporary associations, sets itself long-term goals and exists for a fairly long period of time.

Third, a political party has not only central but also local organizations, i.e., as a rule, a clear organizational structure, enshrined in the party charter.

Fourth, a political party, in contrast to political clubs and circles, strives to create a mass support for itself, that is, to spread its influence over a large number of people, and, as a rule, achieve the support of voters in elections to representative bodies of government.

Fifthly, a political party brings together people who have similar views on social problems, united by a single thought about the state and social structure; Ideas common to party members are usually set out in the party program.

Parties justify political goals, develop ways to fight for power, and strive to win the support of large masses of people.

Since social groups are diverse, their interests are also diverse. In those countries where there are conditions for the expression of these interests (i.e. democratic countries), there is not one, but several different political parties. At the same time, they compete with each other in the struggle for influence on voters.

When one party is in power and pursues a certain policy (or, as they also say, a political line), then other parties that disagree with this policy criticize the ruling party, being in opposition to it. They are developing their own political line as a possible option instead of the one pursued by the authorities. By criticizing the policies of the party in power and offering voters its own version of the policy, the opposition expects to come to power in the next elections.

The activity in a country of several political parties competing for votes is called multi-partyism.

IN modern world exists in various countries a large number of political parties. Among the parties in the United States, two are especially influential - the Republican and the Democratic; There are also two leading parties in Great Britain: Conservative and Labor - the largest labor party in the country.

In our country at the beginning of the 20th century. There were also several parties. Subsequently, for many years there was only one party left - the communist one. Currently, new political parties have emerged that strive to ensure that people vote for their representatives in elections in order to influence the activities of government bodies through them.

The role of politics in society. Politics plays a big role in the development of society. Much depends on what policy the state or government pursues: whether the living conditions of various social groups, their well-being will be better or worse, whether cultural achievements will become available to them, whether the degree of their freedom will increase or whether it will be eliminated altogether.

There have been many governments in history whose policies served the interests of the few and infringed on the rights of the majority of people. A truly democratic state is called upon to take care of all social groups and take into account the interests of all nations and nationalities. However, the methods, order, and pace of solving the problems facing society may be different. Therefore, political disputes and discussions arise: which social groups need priority assistance? What economic policy provides the fastest improvement in people's lives? How to take into account the interests of some nationalities without infringing on the interests of others? How to ensure the external security of the country?

The solution to these and many other issues in politics determines whether people will live worse or better in the future. Therefore, disputes on various political issues and political struggle occupy a prominent place in the life of society and are reflected on the pages of newspapers, television screens, at rallies and meetings. Ultimately, supporters of different political decisions and different political organizations strive for the state to pursue policies that meet their interests. Why? Because the state controls enormous monetary and material resources, issues laws that are binding on all citizens, and has the power to stop violations of the law.

Nowadays, the main question in the political life of Russia is the question of the ways and pace of renewal of all spheres of social life, the sequence of transformations. Members of various parties and others political organizations are actively involved in political activities. They hold meetings and conferences to discuss their goals and objectives, which, in their opinion, would most fully reflect the interests of various social groups and the entire people, to determine ways to influence state policy, to resolve the issue of participation in the work of government bodies. Party members organize rallies and other public events; distribute printed publications to clarify your goals; nominate candidates for deputies of various government bodies and campaign for them, trying to gain the support of as many people as possible; express their attitude towards the state and government; collect signatures for appeals to government bodies.

Is politics everyone's business? What is necessary for successful political activity? Any business requires certain knowledge. Is it possible to imagine a doctor who does not know human anatomy and physiology, the science of diseases and methods of treatment? Or an engineer, no knowledgeable physics, mathematics, technology? It is clear that the first requirement for a person who wants to engage in political activity is knowledge of political life: the social structure, the political system, government policies, various political organizations, the most important events of our days. A school student can acquire this knowledge by studying history, social studies courses, studying the laws of his republic, speeches of outstanding political figures, books and articles by political scientists, reading newspapers and magazines, participating in public life. But knowledge alone is not enough. It is necessary to determine your own attitude towards the positions of various political parties and other organizations. When a person joins a political organization, its goals become his personal goals. It is impossible to engage in social and political activity without being convinced that it will bring good to people, that society needs it. A confident person inspires confidence in himself from other people.

It is also necessary to develop the skill of political action, which includes: a) the ability to clearly and convincingly express one’s views to other people, listen and understand another point of view, understand the essence of the dispute, and defend one’s beliefs; b) the ability to independently navigate political information, collect and systematize material on a particular issue, and correctly evaluate it; c) organizational skills, the ability to correctly distribute assignments and check their implementation. All these skills can be developed in practical activities, with active involvement in social and political life. A person’s beliefs and political views, knowledge and skills, and experience of his participation in public life characterize his political culture. Political figures people should become highly general and political culture, purposeful and strong-willed, with organizational skills, and most importantly - sincerely striving for the public good, passionately wishing good to other people.

Basic Concepts

• Politics, political power, political party, multi-party system.

Terms

• Political organization, opposition.

Self-test questions

1. What does the word "politics" mean? What role does politics play in the life of society?
2. What is included in the scope of politics?
3. What are the signs of any power?
4. What are the main features of political power?
5. Why do political organizations arise in society?
6. What is a political party? Why are political parties created?
7. Under what conditions can a person consciously participate in political life?

Tasks

1. Consider whether there is a contradiction between two statements: politics is relations between classes; Politics is participation in the affairs of the state.

   Explain your answer.

2. Let us remember the time of Peter I, the main directions of the policy of his government. Whose interests did this policy represent?
3. Two points of view were expressed in the discussion: every person can engage in politics; Any person cannot engage in politics, but only one who has the qualities of a political figure.

   What is your point of view? Give reasons for it.

4. List the political parties that you know. Indicate what political goals they have for themselves and what your position is on these goals. Explain your position.
5. Name recent political events that made you happy and that made you sad. Why?
6. Sometimes a person declares: “I am out of politics! I’m not interested in politics!” Express your opinion on this position.
7. Collect newspaper materials about the political activities of the highest bodies of our state and various political organizations. Please note what you consider most important in these materials. Why?

Homework No. 5 1) Read the text, complete the task and answer the question. What do we mean by politics? This concept is extremely broad meaning and covers all self-direction activities. They talk about the monetary policy of banks, about the policy of the trade union during a strike; we can talk about school policy a city or rural community, about the politics of the board that runs a corporation, and finally, even about the politics of a smart wife who seeks to manage her husband. So, "politics" seems to mean the desire to participate in power or to influence the distribution of power, either between states, or within a state between the groups of people that it contains. One can engage in "politics" - that is, seek to influence the distribution of power between and within political entities - both as an "occasional" politician and as a politician for whom this is a side or main profession, just like in economics. craft. We are all “occasional” politicians when we cast our ballot or make a similar expression of will, for example, by clapping or protesting at a “political meeting”, making a “political” speech, etc.; For many people, such actions limit their attitude to politics. “Part-time” politicians these days are, for example, all those proxies and boards of party-political unions who engage in this activity only when necessary, and it does not become their primary “business of life”... They do the same thing politics, members of state councils and similar advisory bodies, which begin to function only on demand. But in the same way, quite wide sections of our parliamentarians are also engaged in it, who “work” for it only during sessions... There are two ways to make politics your profession: either live “for politics”, or live “at the expense” of politics and "politics". M. Weber. “Politics as a vocation and profession” Using the content of the text, fill out the table Types of PoliticiansCharacteristicsExample 123 2) How do you understand the expression “live politics”? 3) Participants in a television talk show discussed the connection between politics and morality. The following judgments were made: 1) “I don’t care what methods a politician uses, the main thing is that his actions are good for the state”; 2) “Politicians should not cover up unsightly and sometimes illegal actions with good goals.” Think about what arguments for and against the supporters of each of the judgments could be, and write two arguments in the table. Judgment Arguments for Arguments against 12 Which judgment is closest to you? Why? Additional task (optional!): 4) Make a report about the political events of the current week and respond to next questions: Why do you consider the events presented to be political? What political forces took part in them? What interests did they defend? 5) Collect materials from newspapers about the political activities of the highest authorities of our state, various political organizations. Please indicate what you consider most important in these materials and why?