The World Trade Organization is an international organization created in 1995 with the aim of liberalizing international trade and regulating trade and political relations of member states. The WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concluded in 1947 and for almost 50 years, it effectively served as an international organization.
The WTO is responsible for the development and implementation of new trade agreements, and also ensures that members of the organization comply with all agreements signed by most countries of the world and ratified by their parliaments. The WTO builds its activities on the basis of decisions taken in 1986-1994 within the framework of the Uruguay Round and earlier GATT agreements. Discussion of problems and decision-making on global problems of liberalization and prospects for the further development of world trade take place within the framework of multilateral trade negotiations (rounds). The so-called Uruguay Round of negotiations, which lasted from 1986 to 1994, was the most successful. The participating countries agreed that within the framework of this organization not only trade in goods would be regulated (which has been the subject of GATT since 1948), but also in connection with the increasing role of services in post-industrial society and their growing share in world trade ( at the beginning of the 21st century - about 20%) the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was adopted, regulating this area of foreign trade. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was also adopted, which regulates trade issues of rights to the results of intellectual activity and is an integral part of the legal foundation of the WTO.
To date, 8 rounds of such negotiations have been held, including Uruguay, and the ninth started in Doha, Qatar in 2001.
The WTO headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland.
Head of the WTO (Director General) - Pascal Lamy.
As of July 2008, 153 countries were members of the WTO. Each of them is obliged to provide other members of the organization with most favored nation treatment in trade.
The official supreme body of the organization is the WTO Ministerial Conference, which meets at least once every two years. During the existence of the WTO, six such conferences were held, almost each of which was accompanied by active protests from opponents of globalization. The ongoing tasks of organization between conferences are entrusted to the WTO General Council, which meets several times a year in Geneva. Subordinate to the Council is special commission to monitor the trade policies of participating countries, designed to monitor the implementation of their obligations under the WTO.
One of the most important instruments for resolving disputes arising between member countries within the WTO is the Dispute Settlement Board (DSB), a quasi-judicial body designed to impartially and quickly resolve disagreements between the parties.
The bulk of trade disputes within the WTO are disputes between the largest subjects of international trade - the European Union and the United States. For example, the conflict regarding the high import duties on European steel introduced by the United States in March 2002 in order to support the American steel industry received wide publicity. European Union regarded this as discrimination prohibited by WTO rules and challenged these measures with a complaint to the Commission, which found measures to protect the American market to violate WTO rules. The US was forced to abolish discriminatory tariffs.
The main objectives of the WTO are to liberalize international trade, ensure its fairness and predictability, promote economic growth and improve the economic well-being of people. WTO member countries, of which there are now more than 140, address these challenges by monitoring the implementation of multilateral agreements, conducting trade negotiations, settling trade settlements in accordance with the WTO mechanism, as well as providing assistance to developing countries and reviewing national economic policy states
The fundamental principles and rules of the WTO are: trade without discrimination, i.e. reciprocal provision of most favored nation (MFN) treatment in trade and reciprocal provision of national treatment to goods and services of foreign origin; regulation of trade primarily by tariff methods; refusal to use quantitative and other restrictions; trade policy transparency; resolution of trade disputes through consultations and negotiations.
The most important functions of the WTO are: monitoring the implementation of agreements and arrangements of the Uruguay Round package of documents; conducting multilateral trade negotiations and consultations between interested member countries; resolution of trade disputes; monitoring national trade policies of member countries; technical assistance to developing countries on issues related to the competence of the WTO; cooperation with international specialized organizations.
According to the WTO, the leader among exporting countries is Germany. In 2008, Germany's exports amounted to $1,661.9 billion. China is next with $1,428.3 billion. The United States closes the top three. The value of their exports in 2008 amounted to 1287.4 billion dollars.
Figure 1 - The largest exporting countries and the volume of their merchandise exports in 2005-2008, billion US dollars
IN developed countries ah Europe, USA, Canada, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and others. The main export goods are cars and aircraft, machinery and equipment, computers and other electronics, complex household appliances, clothing.
Figure 2 - Main importing countries of Chinese products and their share in China’s total exports in 2008, %
The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is one of the main bodies of the United Nations, which coordinates cooperation in the economic and social fields of the UN and its specialized agencies.
ECOSOC is established by the Charter of the United Nations as the main body responsible for coordinating the economic, social and other related activities of the 14 UN specialized agencies, nine functional commissions and five regional commissions. The Council also receives reports from 11 UN funds and programs. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and making policy recommendations to member states and the United Nations system. He is responsible for:
Promoting improved living standards, full employment and economic and social progress;
Identifying Resolution Methods international problems in the economic, social and health fields;
Assistance international cooperation in the field of culture and education;
Promote universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
It is authorized to conduct or organize studies and prepare reports on these matters. He also has the authority to assist in the preparation and organization of major international conferences on economic and social problems and related issues, and to facilitate agreed follow-up to such conferences. In accordance with its broad mandate, the Council controls more than 70 percent of the human and financial resources of the entire UN system.
ECOSOC consists of 54 states elected by the General Assembly for a term of three years. There are no restrictions on re-election: a retiring ECOSOC member can be re-elected immediately. Each ECOSOC member has one vote. Decisions are made by a majority vote of the ECOSOC members present and voting. UN General Assembly Resolution No. 2847 of December 20, 1971 (A/RES/2847(XXVI)) established the following procedure for the distribution of seats in ECOSOC:
Table 1 - Order of distribution of seats in ECOSOC
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an international economic organization of developed countries that recognizes the principles of representative democracy and free market economy.
Created in 1948 under the name Organization for European Economic Cooperation to coordinate projects for the economic reconstruction of Europe within the framework of the Marshall Plan.
Headquarters in Paris.
Secretary General(since 2006) - Jose Angel Gurria Treviño (Mexico).
The governing body of the OECD is the council of representatives of the organization's member countries. All decisions there are made on the basis of consensus.
In the 1960s, the composition and geographical scope of the OECD expanded, and the organization now includes 32 countries, including most EU member states. The European Commission (a body of the European Union) also takes part in the work of the organization as an individual member.
OECD member states account for about 60% of global GDP.
The subject of discussions held by the governments of OECD member countries is information and analytical reviews coming from the OECD Secretariat, located in Paris. The relevant departments of the Secretariat are engaged in collecting data, tracking trends, analyzing and forecasting economic processes, studying social changes, the structure of trade relations, environment, agriculture, technology, taxation, etc. Most OECD research and analysis is published in the open press.
Behind long years During the existence of the Organization, the focus of its analytical work gradually shifted from the member states themselves to the analysis of the development of countries - currently almost all of them in the world community - professing the principles of a market economy. For example, the Organization offers all its accumulated experience to the services of states engaged in building a market economy, especially those making the transition from a centrally planned economy to a capitalist system. The OECD is also engaged in increasingly specific policy dialogue with dynamic countries in Asia and Latin America.
However, the scope of the OECD's work is not only expanding geographically. From analyzing the development of specific areas of economic and social policy in specific member states, the OECD is moving on to studying their interaction, not only within the Organization itself, but also on a global scale. The Organization's area of interest includes such problems as, for example, the impact of ongoing social policies on the functioning of the economy, or the impact of globalization processes on the economies of individual countries, which can both open up new growth prospects and provoke a defensive reaction, expressed in increased protectionism.
As the OECD expands its contacts around the world, so does its area of interest. The OECD's goal in the coming post-industrial era is to closely intertwine the economic ties of member countries with a future prosperous world economy based on scientific principles.
The size of the annual budget, currently approximately $300 million, and the OECD's annual work plan are determined by member states at Council meetings.
The OECD's largest, and perhaps best-known, unit is its Economic Affairs Directorate, which works, under the leadership of the OECD Chief Economist, to monitor and analyze macroeconomic indicators, along with structural, or microeconomic, issues. Twice a year, in June and December, the Directorate publishes the Economic Outlook, which assesses the trends that emerged in the past year, as well as a forecast of economic development for the next two-year period. The Directorate of Statistics works to collect statistical data on OECD member countries. Data are collected in standardized forms to allow international comparison and are published in both physical and electronic formats.
Trade is the engine of economic development, which will operate at full capacity in the era of globalization. The Directorate of Trade is developing the multilateral rules and international trade discipline that will become necessary to maintain the world trade order as trade develops and expands in this new era. The Uruguay Round of negotiations, held within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, resolved many issues in this area. However, the OECD Trade Directorate will continue to be involved in the analysis and preparation of new trade negotiations, which will involve entirely new categories of trade rules related to environmental issues, competition policy, industrial and technology policy.
High levels of unemployment, unstable and low wages, poverty, and insufficient education are tearing apart the social fabric of society and threatening to destroy the economy. The Directorate of Education, Employment, Labor and Social Affairs oversees many interrelated areas of socio-economic policy aimed at preventing the exclusion of certain groups from social life society. The Directorate monitors the dynamics of employment structures and wages, offering analysis of key trends and key policies in the labor market. The Directorate's interests also include studying the effectiveness of health care and social security programs, the role of women in the workforce, and the impact of technological factors on the status of workers. Through a separate group, the Center for Educational Research and Development, the Directorate conducts research into new methods of teaching and learning.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is the largest economic association (forum), accounting for over 57% of world GDP and 42% of world trade (as of 2007).
Formed in 1989 in Canberra on the initiative of the Prime Ministers of Australia and New Zealand.
APEC was established as a free consultative forum without any rigid organizational structure or a large bureaucracy. The APEC Secretariat, located in Singapore, includes only 23 diplomats representing APEC member countries, as well as 20 local employees.
Initially, APEC's highest body was the annual ministerial meeting. Since 1993, the main form of APEC organizational activity has been the annual summits (informal meetings) of the leaders of APEC countries, during which declarations are adopted summarizing the overall results of the Forum’s activities for the year and determining the prospects for further activities. Sessions of the ministers of foreign affairs and economics are held with greater frequency.
The main working bodies of APEC: Business Advisory Council, three expert committees (committee on trade and investment, economic committee, administrative and budgetary committee) and 11 working groups in various sectors of the economy.
APEC includes 19 countries of the Asia-Pacific region (APR) and two territories - Hong Kong (Hong Kong, which is part of the PRC) and Taiwan, therefore its members are officially called not APEC member countries, but APEC economies.
In 1998, simultaneously with the admission of three new members to APEC - Russia, Vietnam and Peru - a 10-year moratorium was introduced on further expansion of the Forum's membership. India and Mongolia have applied to join APEC.
The main goals of the organization are to ensure a free, open trade regime and strengthen regional cooperation.
Russia is interested in participating in integration projects in the Asia-Pacific region (APR), in which Siberia and Far East, especially in the energy and transport fields. They can become a kind of “land bridge” between the countries of the so-called Pacific Rim and Europe.
An APEC summit is planned to be held in Russia in November 2012. The summit is scheduled to take place in Vladivostok on Russky Island.
Table 2 - Main foreign trade indicators of APEC, trillion. US dollars
In 2008, there was a trend towards a decrease in trade quotas. Thus, the export quota of APEC countries decreased by 2.4% compared to the previous year, and the import quota by 3.4%. Thus, due to the financial crisis, foreign trade turnover decreased by 5.8%.
International economic organizations in the field of foreign trade began to develop in the 20th century. During this period, the productive forces of society and the social division of labor go beyond national borders and the importance of international economic relations grows.
The growth of international trade after the 2nd World War (from 1950 to 1947, world foreign trade turnover increased 10 times) led to the creation of new international organizations (both within the UN and outside it), the main direction of which was the search for ways of a universal settlement international economic relations, and primarily international trade, due to their special significance. The number of international organizations reached three thousand by 1977.
International organizations are a stable institution of multilateral international relations, created in most cases by at least three states and having goals, competence and its own permanent bodies agreed upon by its participants, as well as other specific political and organizational institutional norms, including charter, procedure, membership, decision-making procedures, etc. .
Among international economic organizations one should distinguish: interstate (intergovernmental), whose members are states; non-governmental, whose members are certain domestic organizations or bodies, public organizations or individuals.
In addition, international economic organizations should be distinguished:
by the nature of their activities: permanently operating (such organizations are created on the basis of economic agreements); temporary (i.e. operating during convened conferences and meetings);
by level of competence: organizations competent on general issues of international trade; organizations competent for certain types of goods.
The main permanent intergovernmental organization is the UN (founded in 1945). According to its charter, the UN is called upon to carry out international cooperation in order to resolve global economic problems (Article 1) “in order to create conditions of stability and prosperity”, with the aim of “promoting an increase in living standards , economic development and progress in the world."
Issues of economic cooperation are dealt with by the highest body of the UN - the General Assembly and the ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council) led by it.
The UN General Assembly usually convenes for a session once a year and, as needed, at special and emergency sessions, the GA organizes studies and makes recommendations to states to promote international cooperation in economic, social and other sectors (Article 13 of the Charter) The GA exercises leadership functions on in relation to ECOSOC, Its recommendations to the council are binding (Articles 60, 66 of the Charter). ECOSOC consists of 54 members, one third of whom are re-elected by the GA annually; ECOSOC meets for its sessions twice a year. ECOSOC is called upon to decide specific tasks international economic cooperation. According to the UN Charter, the functions of ECOSOC include conducting various types of research and reports on international issues in the areas of economic, social, culture, education, health and similar issues. Within the framework of the Council, draft international agreements and conventions are developed, which are subsequently submitted for approval to the GA. The functions of ECOSOC also include coordinating the activities of specialized UN agencies, with which it enters into special agreements, as well as the leadership of regional economic commissions.
ECOSOC activities are carried out through a number of its subsidiary organizations, committees and commissions.
The following regional economic commissions operate under the leadership of the Economic and Social Council:
The Economic Commission for Europe (Economic Commission for Europe) was created in 1947 for a period of 5 years to provide effective assistance European countries devastated by the Second World War. Then the term of this commission was extended indefinitely. The highest body of the commission is the plenary sessions (convened once a year). The permanent body of the Commission is the Secretariat. The Secretariat has departments: plans and research, industrial, transport, trade and intermediary. There are ten committees within the Commission: on ferrous metallurgy; for coal; for electricity; on industry and inland transport; by labor force; on the housing issue; on the development of foreign trade and others.
Economic Commission for Asia and Pacific Ocean(ESCAP), established in 1947 as a temporary organization. In 1952 the commission was reorganized into a permanent one. The highest body of the Commission is the plenary sessions (convened once a year). A permanent body is the Secretariat, consisting of the departments of industry and trade, transport and communications, social issues, research and plans. ESCAP includes: the Committee on Industry and Natural Resources, the Committee on Inland Transport and Communications, the Committee on Trade. With the participation of ESCAP, projects have been developed and (work on their implementation is being coordinated): construction of a trans-Asian railway, construction of a trans-Asian highway through 15 countries;
Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), created in 1948, registered as permanent in 1951. Its members are 20 Latin American countries. The highest and permanent bodies of the Commission are, respectively, the plenary sessions and the Secretariat. The Secretariat consists of six departments. With the participation of ECLA, the Latin American economic system(LNPP);
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Created at the XXV session of ECOSOC (1958) by decision of the UN General Assembly (XII session November 26, 1957) The functions, supreme and permanent bodies are similar to other economic commissions. ECA has developed a number of projects for the construction of the Trans-African, Trans-Saharan and East African Highways;
The Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA) focused on the research form of activity, summarizing and forecasting trends and development prospects for individual countries in the region. In particular, the practice of TNCs in the oil industry of the region is studied.
An important subsidiary body of the UN GA is the International Trade Commission (UNISTRAL), which works to promote and unify international trade rights. In particular, it developed the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, adopted at a UN conference in 1980.
One of the most significant UN bodies dealing with problems of economic cooperation is UNCTAD - the UN Conference on Trade and Development was established in 1964 as a body of the UN General Assembly. Created as an auxiliary body of the GA, it has long grown into an independent autonomous organization with numerous auxiliary bodies. The highest body of UNCTAD is the conference sessions (meets every three to four years). Between sessions, the conference functions as the Trade and Development Council (meets twice a year). The Council has seven standing committees: on commodities; for industrial goods; according to preferences; on invisible items and trade-related financing; on sea transportation; on Technology Transfer and Economic Cooperation of Developing Countries, as well as four working groups.
In the UNGA resolution that established UNCTAD, its functions were formulated as follows:
1) encouragement of international trade, especially from the point of view of accelerating economic development, in particular trade between countries at different levels of development...;
2) establishing principles and policies relating to international trade and related economic development issues;
4) review and facilitate coordination of the activities of other agencies within the UN system...;
5) taking, if necessary, measures in cooperation with the competent UN bodies to negotiate and approve multilateral legal acts in the field of trade...;
6) harmonization of the policies of governments and regional economic groupings in the field of trade...;
7) consideration of any other issues within the competence of:
Already the first Conference (UNCTAD-1) adopted the “Principles of International Trade Relations and Trade Policy” prepared by the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia. This document was extremely important for the development within the framework of UNCTAD of the “Charter of Economic Rights and Responsibilities of States” (1974)
UNCTAD VI adopted a resolution on the rejection of economic coercive measures, which condemned the policies and practices of trade restrictions, blockades, embargoes and other economic sanctions.
UNCTAD-IV developed and adopted international agreements on natural rubber, cocoa, sugar, tropical wood, jute, and tin. An Agreement on the Establishment of a Common Fund for Commodities was developed and adopted.
UNCTAD conferences were held: in Geneva - in 1964 (UNCTAD-I), New Delhi - 1968 (UNCTAD-II), Santiago de Chile - 1973 (UNCTAD-III), Nairobi - 1976. (UNCTAD-IV), Manila - 1979 (UNCTAD-V), Belgrade - 1983 (UNCTAD-VI), Geneva - 1987 (UNCTAD-VII).
The nature of UNCTAD's activities, its structure, universality, scope of competencies and the nature of the documents adopted give every reason to consider it as a “permanent international organization”.
UNCTAD's headquarters are located in Geneva.
UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization - was created in 1956 to promote the industrialization of developing countries. In 1985 it acquired the status of a specialized agency of the UN. The highest body of UNIDO is the General Conference, convened once every four years, and the governing body is the Industrial Development Council, which meets once a year. The Council consists of 45 members elected by the General Conference for a term of three years on the basis of the principle of equitable geographical representation. The Standing Committee, which is a subsidiary body of the Council, meets twice a year. The Secretariat - the administrative body of UNIDO is located in Vienna (Austria). The Secretary-General of UNIDO, on the recommendation of the Council, is approved by the General Conference for a term of four years. The governing bodies also include the Program and Budget Committee. Since 1981, an information bank on industry and technology has been operating.
The founding documents of the organization - the Lima Declaration and the Action Plan for Industrial Development and Cooperation, adopted in 1975, contain important provisions aimed at implementing such principles of NMEP and international economic law as asserting sovereignty over one’s own natural resources and all economic activities, etc. At the UNIDO General Conference in 1980 in New Delhi, the Declaration and Action Plan for Further Industrialization were developed and adopted as part of the UN international development strategy for the third decade.
The establishment of equal international economic cooperation in the field of science and technology should promote World organization Intellectual Property Rights (WIPO), which is designed to assist developing countries in establishing national systems for the protection of industrial property and copyright.
In addition to the above, the following UN specialized agencies can also be mentioned: the International Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
Among the UN monetary institutions, the following stand out: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), as well as the International Finance Corporation - IFC and International Association development - IDA. All these organizations are intergovernmental in nature and have the status of specialized agencies of the UN, i.e. The UN cannot make recommendations regarding policies and guidelines for their activities.
The IMF and the World Bank are the largest international monetary organizations - created on the basis of agreements adopted by the Bretton Woods Conference (USA) in 1944. As of January 1, 1990, 151 states were members of each organization; currently Russian Federation is also a member of these organizations. The IMF and IBRD are specialized agencies of the UN; they have agreements on relations with the UN (since 1947)
The objectives of the IMF are to coordinate the monetary and financial policies of member countries and the provision of loans to them to settle balances of payments and maintain exchange rates.
The main goal of the IBRD is to promote the reconstruction and development of the territories of member states by encouraging investment for productive purposes.
IFC (established in 1956 as a branch of the IBRD; as of January 1, 1990 - 133 members) finances mainly multinational projects in which local and foreign capital participates, provides loans on preferential terms and without government guarantees.
IDA (established in 1960 as a branch of the IBRD, as of January 1, 1995 - 137 members) provides interest-free loans (to developing countries) on more favorable terms than the IBRD. The loan term is 40 years for the least developed countries (according to the official UN list) and 35 years for the rest.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the largest intergovernmental trade agreement, was adopted in 1948 as a temporary agreement. Initially, the participating countries worked on a draft Trade Organization Charter (TCO), which remained unratified.
The set of rules that collectively make up the multilateral trading system known as GATT consists of the General Agreement itself (38 articles), as well as the later GATT settlement of international trade disputes.
110 states are members of the GATT, the Russian Federation has observer status.
The GATT headquarters is located in Geneva (Switzerland). The highest body of the GATT is the sessions of the Contracting Parties, held on an annual basis.
Within the framework of the GATT, 7 rounds of multilateral trade negotiations were held, during which the customs tariffs of the participating countries were consistently implemented, agreements were developed on standards and other non-tariff measures for regulating foreign trade, government procurement, trade in civil aircraft and textiles.
The result of negotiations within the Uruguay Round of GATT is the General Agreement on Trade and Services - GATS. The largest economic and political organization in Europe is the European Union (EU), created on the basis of the European Communities: the European Economic Community (EEC); European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and European Community atomic energy(EURAATOM), created in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1951 - ECSC) and the two Treaties of Rome (1957). In 1987, these treaties were supplemented by the Single European Act, and on February 7, 1992, the member states of the European Community signed the Treaty on European Union (Maa Treaty), and on November 1, 1993 it came into force.
The European Union includes 12 countries: Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg (founders), Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Portugal, Spain (joined in 1973-1986).
One of the objectives of the Treaty is to ensure efficient work EU mechanisms and institutions.
In accordance with the Treaty, the main goals of the Union are the following:
promote economic and social progress by creating a space without internal boundaries...;
establish your status and purpose in the international arena;
strengthen the protection of the rights and interests of citizens of states by introducing Union citizenship;
develop close cooperation in the field of justice and internal affairs;
maintain and, if necessary, revise and improve the system of connections and relationships.
Key Features The cooperation procedure is a transition to agreeing on positions by passing the project “shuttle” between the commission. The Council, the EP and the provision of the EP (European Parliament) with the right to veto on an established range of issues (Article 189 of the EEC Charter).
The main executive body of the Council is the EU Commission. The highest body of the EU is the European Council, consisting of the heads of state and government of the Community member countries.
The European Parliament is elected directly by the citizens of EU member states on the basis of universal and direct suffrage. Based on the above, international economic organizations can be classified on the following basis:
1. The form of the constituent act (based on treaties; international acts other than treaties (UNCTAD, established by the UN GA); without a single formal legal act (GATT);
2. Scope of powers - ordinary and supranational (EU);
3. The order of access - limited (based on regional or other reasons) and unlimited (“open”).
An important factor characterizing international economic organizations (IEORGs) is the “nature of membership,” which shows the differences between IEEORGs with a single status of UN member states and IEEORGs with different categories of member states (FAO, GATT, OPEC). Art. II of the FAO Constitution distinguishes between plenipotentiary and associate members; the latter cannot hold any positions or participate in voting (Article III).
The species diversity of MEORGs is visible when analyzing the subject of their activities. By subject of competence there are:
1. Organizations of general competence, including those dealing with economic issues (UN, OEA);
2. Organizations economic integration(EU);
3. General economic organizations coordinating the economic policies of the member states in all main areas of economic cooperation;
4. Specialized MEORG:
a) trade organizations (UNCTAD); international commodity organizations (International Cocoa Organization); Organization of Exporting Countries (OPEC);
b) monetary and financial organizations(IMF, IBRD);
c) investment bodies (International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes);
d) organizations in the field of agricultural cooperation (FAO);
e) organizations in the field of industrial cooperation (UNIDO);
f) organizations in the field of transport and communications (Universal Postal Union);
g) other organizations carrying out activities of an economic nature (World Intellectual Property Organization).
Modern MEORGs use various decision-making procedures:
Classification allows us to see the false organized system of MEORG from various points of view, to highlight their general and specific properties that determine species diversity.
Conclusion:
The growing importance and complexity of international economic relations make it necessary to strengthen their management by the joint efforts of states through international organizations, which leads to an increase in the number of international organizations and their role in the development of economic interstate cooperation. As a result, international organizations are important subjects of international economic law.
International organizations operating in the field of economic relations can be divided into two groups. The first includes organizations whose actions cover the entire sphere of economic relations; the second group includes organizations operating within certain sub-sectors of international economic law (for example, trade, financial, investment, transport and others).
Conclusion
The complexity of the object of regulation of international economic law lies in the fact that it covers diverse types of relations that differ in their content and are associated with various aspects of economic relations. These include trade, transport, customs, financial, investment and other relations. Each of them has its own specific content, generating the need for special legal regulation, as a result of which sub-branches of international economic law have been formed: international trade law; international transport law; international customs law; international financial law, international investment law, international technology law.
Each sub-sector is a system of international legal norms governing interstate cooperation in a specific area of economic relations. All of them are united into a single branch of international law - international economic law - with a common object of regulation, common goals and principles. In addition, a number of institutions of international economic law are elements of other branches of international law: the law of international organizations, the law of treaties, the law of peaceful resolution of international disputes, etc.
Russia's vital interests depend on the solution of economic problems. The “State Strategy for Economic Security of the Russian Federation” approved by the Presidential Decree “reasonably proceeds from the need for the effective implementation of the advantages of the international division of labor, the sustainability of the country’s development in the conditions of its equal integration into world economic relations. Without ensuring economic security, it is practically impossible to solve any of the problems facing the country, both domestically and internationally.
See: Grabar V.E. Materials on the history of literature of international law in Russia (1647 - 1917). M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958.
Nigerian professor T. Elaeyes writes that modern international law“has its origins since the end of the Second World War, primarily with the advent of the United Nations.” American professor J. Kunz, Indian chief justice R. Pathak and others wrote about this.
Yakovlev V.P. Social time. Rostov-on-Don, 1980. P. 96.
See Art. 6 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; see art. 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; see art. 8 of the 1990 Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families.
In-situ conservation refers to the conditions in which genetic resources exist within ecosystems and natural habitats, and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the environment in which they acquired their distinctive characteristics.
Ex situ conservation means preservation of components biological diversity outside their natural habitats.
Vasilenko V.A. Fundamentals of the theory of international law. Kyiv, 1998. P. 10.
History of international law. Baskin, Feldman. 1995. P. 32.
History of international law. Baskin, Feldman. 1995. P. 266.
The eye of all great Russia. M., 1980. P. 28.
Collection of current treaties, agreements and conventions concluded by the USSR with foreign states. Vol. XXIII. No. 1138. M., 1970.
Right there. Vol. XXXIII. No. 2480. M., 1979.
Ortolan T. International maritime law. St. Petersburg, 1875. P.11.
Higgins and Colombos. International maritime law. M.: Iz-vo inostr.lit., 1953. P. 49.
Tarkhanov I.E. Freedom of navigation is one of the main components freedom of the high seas. Proceedings of Soyuzmorniiproekt. M., 1973. P.89-93.
UN Chronicle. July 1995. T.XXXII. No. 1. Department of Public Information. NY. P. 9.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)- international regional organization. APEC is the largest economic association (forum), accounting for over 60% of world GDP and 47% of world trade volume (2004). Formed in 1989 in Canberra on the initiative of the Prime Ministers of Australia and New Zealand. The main goals of the organization are to ensure a regime of free open trade and strengthen regional cooperation
Arctic Council- an international organization created in 1989 on the initiative of Finland to protect unique nature northern polar zone. The Arctic Council includes eight Arctic countries
Association of Southeast Asian Nations is a political, economic and cultural regional intergovernmental organization of countries located in Southeast Asia. ASEAN was established on August 9, 1967 in Bangkok with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration, better known as the Bangkok Declaration.
African Union (AU)- an international organization uniting 53 African states, the successor of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The course towards the creation of the African Union was proclaimed on September 9, 1999 at a meeting of African heads of state in Sirte (Libya) on the initiative of Muammar Gaddafi. On July 9, 2002, the OAU was officially transformed into the AU.
Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)- alliance of Latin American and Caribbean countries. The ALBA alliance includes eight countries: Bolivia, Venezuela, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Dominica, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
Big Eight - according to most definitions, this is a group of seven industrialized countries of the world and Russia. The same name is given to the informal forum of leaders of these countries (Russia, USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Germany, Canada, Italy) with the participation of the European Commission, within the framework of which approaches to pressing international problems are agreed upon.
The World Bank - a group of three international financial organizations – IBRD and its branches: IFC, IDA.
World Trade Organization (WTO)(English: World Trade Organization (WTO)) is an international organization created in 1995 to unite various countries in the economic sphere and establish trade rules between member states. The WTO is the successor agreement called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO headquarters is located in Geneva.
GUAM is an interstate organization, created in October 1997 by former Soviet republics- Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova (from 1999 to 2005, Uzbekistan was also a member of the organization). The name of the organization is formed from the first letters of the names of its member countries. Before Uzbekistan left the organization, it was called GUUAM.
European Union (EU)- a unique supranational entity consisting of 25 European states that have signed the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty). It is noteworthy that the European Union itself is not an international organization as such, that is, it is not a subject of public international law, but it has the authority to participate in international relations.
EFTA- grouping from the countries: Austria, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Sweden. Organized in 1960. In mutual trade between these countries, customs duties and benefits have been abolished. Each state pursues an independent trade policy both among itself and in relation to the countries of the “third world”.
League of Arab States (LAS)- an international organization uniting more than 20 Arab and friendly non-Arab countries. Created on March 22, 1945. The highest body of the organization is the Council of the League, in which each member state has one vote; the headquarters of the League is located in Cairo.
IDA – International Development Association – (branch of IBRD) provides loans to countries of the 3rd world on more preferential terms than the IBRD.
IBRD – international bank for reconstruction and development – an international financial organization specializing in the formation of credit lines aimed at stimulating international trade.
IMF – International Monetary Fund is an international financial and economic organization that regulates currency relations between states and provides them with loans. Since 1992, Russia has also been a member of the IMF, totaling 180 countries.
IFC – international financial corporation – (branch of IBRD), designed to encourage private entrepreneurship in developing countries, members of the IBRD.
MERCOSUR- the largest association in South America. MERCOSUR unites 250 million people and more than 75% of the continent's total GDP. The organization's name comes from the Spanish Mercado Comun del Sur, which means "South American Common Market". The first step towards creating a unified market was the free trade agreement signed by Argentina and Brazil in 1986. In 1990, Paraguay and Uruguay joined this agreement.
Organization of the Treaty on collective security(CSTO)- a military-political union created by the former Soviet republics on the basis of the Collective Security Treaty (CST), signed on May 15, 1992. The contract is renewed automatically every five years.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development – OECD – established in 1961, includes more than 84 countries, which account for more than 2/3 of world production. The OECD is a club of politically developed countries for coordinating economic policies, conducting research on a global scale, and is a center for the development of econometric models of the world economy.
NATO (NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, North Atlantic Alliance)- a military-political alliance created on the basis of the North Atlantic Treaty, signed on April 4, 1949 in Washington by twelve states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, Iceland. Later, other European states joined NATO. As of 2004, NATO includes 26 states.
NIS – newly industrialized countries that have signed cooperation agreements: Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan.
OSCE (eng. OSCE, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)- Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the largest regional security organization, which includes 56 states in Europe, Central Asia and North America. The organization sets itself the task of uncovering the possibility of conflicts, their prevention, resolution and elimination of consequences.
United Nations (UN)- an international organization created to maintain and strengthen international peace and security and development of cooperation between states. The foundations of its activities and structure were developed during the Second World War by the leading participants in the anti-Hitler coalition.
North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA)- a free trade agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico, based on the model of the European Community (European Union). NAFTA came into force on January 1, 1994.
Arab Maghreb Union (Union du Maghreb Arabe UMA)- Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia. Pan-Arab organization aimed at economic and political unity in North Africa. The idea of creating a union appeared with the independence of Tunisia and Morocco in 1958.
Commonwealth of Democratic Choice (CDC)- “community of democracies of the Baltic-Black Sea-Caspian region”, an organization alternative to the CIS, established on December 2, 2005 at the founding forum in Kyiv (Ukraine).
Commonwealth, or Commonwealth of Nations (eng. The Commonwealth, or eng.- a voluntary interstate association of independent sovereign states, which includes Great Britain and almost all of its former dominions, colonies and protectorates.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)- an interstate association of most of the former union republics of the USSR. Originally formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine; In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS, signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk, these states stated that the USSR, in conditions of deep crisis and collapse, was ceasing to exist, and declared their desire to develop cooperation in political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields.
Commonwealth of Unrecognized States (CIS-2)- an informal association created for consultation, mutual assistance, coordination and joint actions by unrecognized self-proclaimed state entities on post-Soviet territory- Abkhazia, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, the Transnistrian Moldavian Republic and South Ossetia.
Council of Europe- Europe's oldest international political organization. Its main stated goal is to build a united Europe based on the principles of freedom, democracy, protection of human rights and the rule of law. One of the most significant achievements of the Council of Europe is the development and adoption of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)- regional international organization. The organization's English name does not contain the word "Persian" because Arab states prefer to call the Gulf "Arab".
The Schengen Agreement- Agreement “On the abolition of passport customs controls between a number of countries of the European Union”, originally signed on June 14, 1985 by seven European states (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Portugal and Spain). It came into force on March 26, 1995. The agreement was signed in Schengen, small town in Luxembourg.
TITLE IX
GLOSSARY
for tests and crosswords:
Unemployment - This is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the working population cannot find a job.
Budget deficit – excess of expenses over income.
Budget surplus – excess of income over expenses.
"Tree of Goals" - a method based on the hierarchical principle of realizing the general goal.
J-curve – the time lag that occurs between currency devaluation and an improvement in the trade balance.
Devaluation– depreciation of the national currency.
Dumping policy– a policy of artificially setting prices below market prices. In some cases, prices may drop to cost levels.
The income-leisure dilemma - This is an economic situation in which the priority of income is achieved at the expense of the “sacrifice” of leisure, and vice versa, the priority of leisure is achieved at the expense of the “sacrifice” of income. This dilemma is based on the "victim theory" originated by Nassau Senior.
Dirigisme – the concept of state regulation of the economy, based on indicative, differentiated management of macroeconomic indicators.
Dichotomy – sequential division of a whole into parts.
Discount - a form of market trading infrastructure, a store selling goods of average quality at discounted prices.
Subsidies– budget resources provided to the budget of another level on a free and irrevocable basis to cover current expenses.
Dragonter – a form of market trading infrastructure, a store with a high degree of automation of operations.
Gossen's Law No. 1 - Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility - while maximizing total utility marginal utility tends to decrease.
Gossen's Law No. 2 – consumer equilibrium condition – When maximizing total utility, marginal utility must be the same value.
Clayton's Law prohibits vertical and horizontal mergers, interlocking directorates (1914).
Okun's Law - if unemployment exceeds the natural level by 1%, the GNP loss will be 2.5%.
Law of supply – directly proportional relationship between price and supply of a product.
Robinson-Patman Law - prohibits price discrimination, "price scissors", (1936)
Law of Demand– inversely proportional relationship between price and demand for a product.
Law of Value– goods are produced and exchanged on the basis of socially necessary labor inputs.
Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity of Factors of Production – an economic situation in which investment in factors of production reaches a certain limit, after which the return on factors of production begins to decline.
Sherman Act prohibits secret monopolization of trade, sole control of prices, and price collusion (1890).
Engel's law - reflects the inverse relationship between the share of income spent on food and the standard of living: the higher the cost of food in the general expense item, the lower the standard of living.
Poverty Index – represents the summation of the unemployment and inflation rates
Institutionalism – a school of economic thought that was formed in the 20-30s of the 20th century to study the totality of socio-economic institutions over time.
Inflation is the depreciation of money accompanied by rising prices.
Convinnesonter – a form of market trading infrastructure, a small store with a limited range of products with a high degree of readiness.
Competition – this is the competition between producers to achieve more better conditions production and sales of products.
"One window" concept - a form of government regulation based on simplified interaction of government institutions with legal entities and individuals.
"Marshall Cross" - it is an economic situation that occurs when the supply and demand curves intersect.
Isoquant curve - reflects the mutual influence of the factor of labor and capital in the production matrix of production volumes (built on the basis of the transformation curve).
Isocost curve – reflects the relationship between the price of production factors and production capabilities under budget constraints (constructed on the basis of the budget constraint line).
Laffer curve – reflects the dependence of tax revenues on tax rates.
Lorenz curve– reflects the relationship between the relative amounts of income and the number of recipients.
Engel curve – reflects the inverse relationship between the share of income spent on food and the standard of living.
Transformation curve (production possibilities curve) – reflects the dependence of production volumes on the efficiency of use of production factors.
Phillips curve – inversely proportional relationship between inflation and unemployment.
Lag effect – lag effect .
Libertarianism- the concept of income redistribution in the state, according to which regions must independently ensure the required level of their own income.
Liquidity – it is the degree of ease with which any type of asset can be converted into legal tender.
Marginalism– an economic school that explains economic processes and phenomena based on marginal, incremental values or states. Marginalism widely uses economic and mathematical methods and is based on quantitative analysis. Marginalism is based on three schools: Cambridge (subject of research: demand, supply, elasticity), Austrian (theory of needs), Lozansky (subject of research: introduction of mathematical apparatus into economics). This is a young movement of economic thought that originated in the second half of the 19th century.
Marxism is a school of economic thought that expresses the interests of the working class.
Mercantilism is a school of economic thought that saw the basis of national prosperity in accumulation noble metals(gold and silver), considered the main forms of wealth. This is the first scientific economic school that laid the foundations of early monetarism, the policy of foreign economic relations, and the policy of protectionism.
Merchandising – a form of product promotion from producer to consumer.
Method of economic duality - e This method is used only in economic science and represents a specification of general scientific research methods, taking into account the specifics of the subject of political economy. The founder of this method was Adam Smith. The method of economic duality makes it possible to scientifically explain the external appearance of economic phenomena from the point of view of their essential properties, as well as to identify both external functional dependencies between these phenomena and their essential patterns. This method is especially evident in the polarity of economic interests, for example, in the specifics of economic relations between producer and consumer, employer and employee, state and taxpayer, etc.
Monetarism– an economic school based on the determining role of the money supply in circulation and on the priority of monetary regulation of the economy.
Cartoonist– coefficient reflecting the increase in income to the increase in investment.
"The Paradox of Thrift" - means that an increase in savings leads to a decrease in income.
"Smith's Paradox" -“Why is water, so useful for humans, so cheap, and diamonds, whose usefulness is much lower, cost so much?”
Peripatetism - is a philosophical doctrine founded by Aristotle in 335 BC, received its name in connection with the thinker’s habit of conducting philosophical reflections while walking - this is the school of “walking” philosophers.
Entrepreneurship– innovative, proactive activities aimed at maximizing profits, associated with the presence of risks in connection with the introduction of a new product, production method, technology.
Marginal utility – the utility of the last unit of a good consumed.
The principle of Occam's razor - in the 14th century, it was proposed that details complicating the theory, which are not absolutely necessary for explaining facts and relationships, should be “shaved off.”
Protectionism – policy of protecting domestic producers from the influence of foreign competition.
Revaluation – appreciation of the national currency.
Stagflation – a period during which chronic inflation is accompanied by a decline in economic activity.
Slumpflation – parallel existence of rising unemployment and rising inflation .
Subvention- budget funds provided to the budget of another level or legal entity on a free and irrevocable basis for the implementation of certain targeted expenses.
Subsidy- budget funds provided to a budget of another level, to an individual or legal entity on the basis of shared financing of targeted expenses.
Superonter - a form of commercial market infrastructure, a store selling perishable goods.
Product- an economic good, a product of human labor intended for sale on the market.
Taxonometry – system of indicators for assessing regional development.
Coase theorem- externalities can be internalized with a clear specification of property rights to resources and the free exchange of these rights.
Rybczynski's theorem - The growing supply of one of the factors of production leads to an increase in income in a given industry, where this factor is used more intensively, and to a decrease in income in an industry where this factor is used less intensively.
Stolper-Samuelson theorem - the establishment of trade relations and free trade leads to an increase in the remuneration of a factor intensively used in production, and, conversely, to a decrease in the remuneration of a factor less intensively used in production.
Heckscher-Ohlin theorem - countries will strive to export goods that require significant inputs of production factors for their production, which they have in relative abundance, and small inputs of scarce factors in exchange for inverse proportions.
Commodity-money fetishism – a form of worship, slavery to goods or money.
Transaction costs – costs not associated with production.
Transfers– budget funds to finance mandatory payments to the population: pensions, scholarships, benefits, compensation, and other social payments.
Utilitarianism– the concept of income redistribution in the state, according to which the state undertakes to moderate redistribution only in terms of eliminating the level of the poorest regions.
Physiocratism – This is a school of economic thought, which is based on the idea of achieving the well-being of the state through the development of agriculture.
Franchising – This is a technology for expanding the sales market based on concluding a franchise agreement between the franchisor (parent company) and the franchisee (small company).
Free trade– free trade policy.
Price discrimination- this is the establishment of different prices for the same product depending on the location of retail outlets.
Egalitarianism- the concept of income redistribution in the state, according to which active public policy to equalize income, it is not necessary to ensure absolute equality of income, but it is necessary to achieve the maximum possible for a given level of economic efficiency.
Eponymy - spontaneous, naturally occurring assignment of the name of a scientist to a principle discovered by him, a law, a doctrine created by him (for example, Gossen’s laws, the Pareto principle, the Giffen effect, etc.)
Statism– the policy of tax arbitrariness of the state.
Veblen effect - the effect of prestigious, status consumption, the “collector” effect.
Giffen effect – an exception to the law of demand applies to the group of lower-ranking goods in the consumption structure.
The "invisible hand" effect - This is an economic situation in which the realization of one’s own economic interests automatically leads to the realization of public economic interests.
Question 61 International economic organizations
Answer
The largest international economic organizations include: economic divisions of the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), International Customs Organization (ICO), International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), International Labor Organization (ILO), etc. Brief information about For organizations of this type, see table. 22.
Table 22. International economic organizations
The main economic body of the UN is ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council), which coordinates economic activity states that are members of the United Nations. In addition, the UN system operates:
United Nations Conference on Trade and Tariffs (UNCTAD);
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO);
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO);
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO);
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
The main task of UNCTAD ( United Nations Conference on Trade and Development)(Fig. 37) is to encourage international trade for accelerated economic development.
Rice. 37. UNCTAD emblem
UNIDO ( United Nations Industrial Development Organization)(Fig. 38) is engaged in promoting industrial development and accelerating the industrialization of developing countries, as well as coordinating UN activities in the field of industrial development.
WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) promotes the protection of intellectual property; development and conclusion of agreements relating to legal and administrative aspects of intellectual property; harmonizes national legislation in the field of intellectual property protection, etc.
WTO ( World Trade Organization)(Fig. 39) was founded in 1947 (original name – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), modern name – since 1995) by 23 states.
Rice. 38. UNIDO emblem
Among the main goals of the WTO are:
1) gradual elimination of customs restrictions on trade;
2) eliminating discrimination in international trade;
3) eliminating unemployment, increasing real incomes, etc.
Rice. 39. WTO emblem
Its main purpose is the ILO (International Labor Organization) sees the unification of the rules of the game in the field of customs barriers, as well as promoting the progress of international trade relations.
ICC (International Chamber of Commerce)(Fig. 40) unites not states, but unions of entrepreneurs and individual firms (a member of the organization is the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation). The Chamber protects the private enterprise system, promotes capital migration and the development of international trade.
Rice. 40. ICC emblem
Like the ICC, ILO was created in 1919. Of course, the ILO strives to eliminate unemployment and ensure full employment; tries to achieve respect for human rights; monitors compliance with international standards regarding occupational safety. Russia for last years has become a member of many major organizations, in addition, it claims to join some that have not yet been covered by its participation. For example, the Russian Federation is negotiating to join the World Trade Organization.
This text is an introductory fragment. From the book Accounting author Bychkova Svetlana Mikhailovna3.2. International and Russian professional organizations of accountants Council on international standards financial statements(www.iasb.org) (International Accounting Standards Board - IASB). The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) is an independent organization
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From book World economy: Cheat sheet author author unknown12. International economic aspects food problem Although food consumption is generally increasing in all regions, it is unevenly distributed across continents and individual states: 1) industrial zones of the world, including Western and Northern
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author Kornienko Oleg VasilievichQuestion 46 International monetary organizations Answer The largest international monetary organizations are: International Monetary Fund, World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, European Investment Bank, Bank
From the book World Economy author Kornienko Oleg VasilievichQuestion 50 Informal international financial organizations Answer The most important informal international financial organizations are the Paris and London Clubs of Creditors, as well as the G-7 and G-10 groups. The Paris Club of Creditors (Fig. 30), created in 1956, is
From the book World Economy author Kornienko Oleg VasilievichQuestion 62 International integration associations Answer The largest international integration associations are: the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA), the Common Market of the Southern Cone, or the South American Common
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From the book National Economics author Kornienko Oleg VasilievichQuestion 65 Economic regions of the Russian Federation Answer An economic region is a part of the country’s economy, which is characterized by a certain economic-geographical position, territorial unity, unique natural and economic conditions, as well as
From the book International Economic Relations: Lecture Notes author Ronshina Natalia Ivanovna From book Economic statistics. Crib author Yakovleva Angelina VitalievnaQuestion 73. International budget classifications The international classification system, which determines the structure of the system of indicators of the state budget, includes the following sections. Classification of income and received official transfers Total income and
From the book International Economic Relations: Cheat Sheet author author unknown From the book The Practice of Human Resource Management author Armstrong MichaelINTERNATIONAL TRADE TRADE ORGANIZATIONS The two main international trade union organizations are the European Trade Union Confederation and the International Trade Union Confederation. Currently, none of them have great influence in the United Kingdom,
The main permanent intergovernmental organization is the United Nations (founded in 1945). According to the charter UN is called upon to carry out international cooperation in order to resolve global economic problems (Article 1) “with the aim of creating conditions of stability and prosperity”, with the aim of “promoting improved living standards, economic development and progress in the world.”
Issues of economic cooperation are dealt with by the highest body of the UN - the General Assembly and the ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council) led by it.
General Assembly UN organizes research and makes recommendations to states to promote international cooperation in economic, social and other sectors; The GA also exercises leadership functions in relation to ECOSOC.
The Economic and Social Council is called upon to solve specific problems of international economic cooperation. According to the UN Charter, the functions of ECOSOC include conducting various types of research and reports on international issues in the areas of economic, social, culture, education, health and similar issues.
Within the framework of the Council, draft international agreements and conventions are developed, which are subsequently submitted for approval to General Assembly. The functions of ECOSOC also include coordinating the activities of specialized UN agencies, with which it enters into special agreements, as well as the leadership of regional economic commissions.
The following regional economic commissions operate under the leadership of the Economic and Social Council.
1. Economic Commission for Europe(Economic Commission for Europe) was created in 1947 for a period of five years to provide effective assistance to those devastated by the Second World War European countries. Then the term of this commission was extended indefinitely. The highest body of the commission is the plenary sessions (convened once a year). The permanent body of the Commission is the Secretariat, which has departments: plans and research, industrial, transport, trade and intermediary. There are ten committees within the Commission: on ferrous metallurgy; for coal; for electricity; on industry and inland transport; by labor force; on the housing issue; on the development of foreign trade, etc.
2. Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP) was created in 1947 as a temporary organization. In 1952 the commission was reorganized into a permanent one. The highest body of the Commission is the plenary sessions (convened once a year). The permanent body is the Secretariat, consisting of the departments of industry and trade, transport and communications, social affairs, research and plans. ESCAP has: the Committee on Industry and Natural Resources, the Committee on Inland Transport and Communications, and the Committee on Trade. With the participation of ESCAP, projects were developed for the construction of a trans-Asian railway and the construction of a trans-Asian highway through 15 countries.
3. Economic Commission for Latin America(ECLA) was created in 1948, in 1951 it was transformed into a permanent commission. Its members are 20 Latin American countries. The highest and permanent bodies of the Commission are the plenary sessions and the Secretariat, respectively. The Secretariat consists of six departments. With the participation of ECLA, the Latin American Economic System (LAES) was created.
Economic Commission for Africa(ECA) was formed at the XXV session of ECOSOC (1958). The functions, supreme and permanent bodies are similar to other economic commissions. ECA has developed projects for the construction of the Trans-African, Trans-Saharan and East African Highways.
5. Economic Commission for Western Asia(ECZA) focused on the research form of activity, summarizing and forecasting trends and development prospects for individual countries in the region. In particular, the practice of transnational corporations in the oil industry of the region is examined.
An important subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly is International Trade Commission(UNISTRAL), which works to promote and unify international trade rights. In particular, it developed the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, adopted at a UN conference in 1980.
One of the most significant UN bodies dealing with problems of economic cooperation is UN Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD). It was established in 1964 as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly and has long grown into an independent body. The highest body of UNCTAD is the conference sessions (meeted once every three to four years). Between sessions, the conference functions as the Trade and Development Council (meets twice a year). The Council has seven standing committees: on commodities; for industrial goods; according to preferences; on invisible items and trade-related financing; on sea transportation; on Technology Transfer and Economic Cooperation of Developing Countries, as well as four working groups.
In the UNGA resolution that established UNCTAD, its functions were formulated as follows:
1) encouragement of international trade, especially from the point of view of accelerating economic development, in particular trade between countries at different levels of development;
2) establishing principles and policies relating to international trade and related economic development issues;
4) review and facilitate coordination of the activities of other agencies within the UN system;
5) taking, if necessary, measures in cooperation with the competent UN bodies to negotiate and approve multilateral legal acts in the field of trade;
6) coordination of policies of governments and regional economic groupings in the field of trade;
7) consideration of any other issues within the competence.
The nature of UNCTAD's activities, its structure, universality, scope of competencies and the nature of the documents adopted give every reason to consider it as a permanent international organization. The organization's headquarters is located in Geneva.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO) was created in 1956 to promote the industrialization of developing countries. In 1985, it acquired the status of a specialized agency of the UN. The highest body of UNIDO is the General Conference, convened once every four years; the governing body is Industrial Development Council, whose meetings are held once a year. The Council consists of 45 members elected by the General Conference for a term of three years based on the principle of equitable geographical representation. The Standing Committee is a subsidiary body of the Council and meets twice a year. The Secretariat - the administrative body of UNIDO is located in Vienna (Austria). The Secretary-General of UNIDO, on the recommendation of the Council, is approved by the General Conference for a term of four years. The governing bodies also include the Program and Budget Committee. Since 1981, an information bank on industry and technology has been operating.
The founding documents of the organization are the Lima Declaration and Plan of Action for Industrial Development and Cooperation, adopted in 1975. UNIDO develops recommendations and programs for governments of developing countries to provide technical assistance in the design and construction of facilities.
The establishment of equal international economic cooperation in the field of science and technology should promote World Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO), which is designed to assist developing countries in establishing national systems for the protection of industrial property and copyright.
Among UN monetary institutions stand out: International Monetary Fund (IMF);
■ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD);
■ International Finance Corporation (IFC);
■ International Development Association (MAP).
All these organizations are intergovernmental in nature and have the status of specialized agencies of the UN, i.e. The UN cannot advise them on policies and guidelines for their activities.
IMF And IBRD- the largest international monetary and credit organizations - created on the basis of agreements adopted by the Bretton Woods Conference (USA) in 1944. Members of each organization are 184 states, including the Russian Federation.
The objectives of the IMF are to coordinate the monetary and financial policies of member countries and to provide loans to them to settle balances of payments and maintain exchange rates.
The main goal of the IBRD is to promote the reconstruction and development of the territories of member states by encouraging investment for productive purposes.
MFC(established in 1956 as a subsidiary of the IBRD and has 176 member countries) finances primarily multinational projects involving local and foreign capital, providing loans on preferential terms and without government guarantees.
MAP(established in 1960 as a branch of the IBRD; it now includes more than 160 countries) provides interest-free loans to developing countries on more favorable terms than the IBRD. The loan term for the least developed (according to the UN list) countries is 40 years, for the rest - 35 years.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) is the largest intergovernmental trade agreement. It was adopted in 1948 as a temporary agreement. Throughout history (1948-1994), its most important function was to conduct multilateral rounds of trade negotiations. There were 8 such rounds in total. The last, Uruguay round, ended in April 1994 with the signing of the Final Act, which consisted of an agreement on the establishment World Trade Organization and a number of documents that together made up the WTO system.
The highest body of the WTO is Ministerial Conference WTO member states. Its sessions are held at least once every two years. Between sessions, the General Council of WTO Members is convened as necessary. It serves as a Dispute Settlement Authority and a Trade Review Mechanism.
politicians. The Ministerial Conference appoints a Director General, who heads the WTO Secretariat. All decisions within the WTO are made by consensus. The competence of the WTO includes:
■ International trade in industrial and agricultural goods;
■ trade in textiles and clothing;
■ international trade services; ■ intellectual property;
■ trade-related investments;
■ special protective, anti-dumping and countervailing measures;
■ sanitary and phytosanitary measures;
■ rules of origin of goods;
■ import licensing, etc.
All multilateral WTO agreements are binding on member states; other countries are forced to follow the norms and rules developed in the GATT/WTO.
In modern international economic relations, a significant role belongs to universal associations that are not formally international organizations. These include, first of all, the Paris and London clubs of creditors.
Paris Club - an interstate mechanism created to develop multilateral agreements between creditor states in relation to debtor states in order to revise the terms of debt repayment. Officially, it does not have a charter, admission rules or assigned structures.
The Russian Federation, being a successor to the USSR, in connection with membership in the Club, received the opportunity to put into practice the sale of significant external assets, many of which were considered “hopeless”.
London club was created with the aim of developing agreements with debtor countries on the payment of external debt and repayment of interbank debt. It unites 600 commercial creditor banks from the leading countries of the world. It is headed by representatives of Deutsche Bank (Germany).