Despite the fact that after 882 the center of the Russian land moved to Kyiv, the Novgorod land managed to maintain its independence.
In 980, the Novgorod prince deprived the Kyiv prince of power with the help of the Varangian squad;
In the second half of the 12th century, Vladimir Monomakh took various measures to strengthen the position of the central government in the Novgorod land. In 1117, despite the discontent of the Novgorod boyars, Vsevolod Mstislavovich ascended the throne in Novgorod.
Novgorod and, located in the north-west, were part of the Kyiv land in the 12th century. In 1348 Pskov, part of Novgorod land, became a large trade and craft center and separated from Novgorod, becoming an independent republic.
State and political system of the Novgorod feudal republic
Home political feature The Novgorod land in the 12th century had a republican form of government, unlike other Russian princely lands.
The highest state body of the Novgorod Republic was considered (parliament-meeting).
The veche elected (expelled) princes, decided issues regarding war and peace, and formed legislative acts and tried the heads of the highest executive bodies of state power.
The prince (usually from) was called upon to rule the veche. The prince was a symbol of the state. Together with the mayor, the prince performed judicial functions, appointed judges and bailiffs.
The archbishop is the head of the church, had some privileges, including in court, he was also the chairman of the Boyar Council, called “Ospoda” in Novgorod, and “Lord” in Pskov.
Posadnik was elected by the veche for a certain period of time, had certain judicial powers, and decided issues related to the life of the Novgorod Republic.
Economy of Novgorod land
Most of the population in Novgorod was engaged in agriculture. Until the 13th century, agriculture in the Novgorod land developed extremely slowly. This was facilitated by external factors: low yields, epidemics, death of livestock, robber raids. In the 13th century, clearing (a farming system based on cutting and burning forests) was replaced by a new three-field system, which was more efficient. The most produced grain here was rye. Other grains were also grown. Some types of vegetables were also grown. In the Novgorod waters there was fish, which was successfully sold. Beekeeping (honey farming) was developed. Thanks to the abundance in the Novgorod forests different types animals, Novgorod was considered a huge exporter of furs to Europe.
Culture of Novgorod land
Novgorodians used birch bark letters to transmit written information. Novgorod styles of architecture and painting are also widely known. The main religion here was Orthodoxy. The Novgorod language differed from the language of other Russian principalities, called the “Novgorod dialect”.
Fall of the Novgorod Republic
Since the 14th century, the Moscow and Tver principalities tried to subjugate Novgorod to themselves. The Novgorod supreme power was against the collection of tribute by Moscow and asked for support from Lithuania.
The Moscow prince, alarmed by the brewing Novgorod-Lithuanian alliance, accused Novgorod of treason and after the Battle of Shelon (1471), as well as his subsequent campaign against Novgorod in 1478, contributed to the annexation of the Novgorod Republic to. Thanks to this, Moscow inherited the previous relations of the Novgorod Republic with its neighbors. The territory of Novgorod land during the era of the Muscovite kingdom (16th - 17th centuries) was divided into 5 pyatyns: Vodskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya and Bezhetskaya. With the help of graveyards (a unit of administrative division), the geographical location of villages was determined, and the population and their property for taxes were counted.
On March 21, 1499, the son of Ivan 3 became the Grand Duke of Novgorod and Pskov. In April 1502, Vasily became co-ruler of Ivan 3, and after his death in 1505 - sole monarch.
During the Middle Ages, there were 15 principalities on the territory of Rus', but their number, as a result of feudal fragmentation, increased to 50. However, 3 of them, the largest, played a special role. These were Galicia-Volynskoe, Vladimirsko-Suzdalskoe and Novgorodskoe. Something can be more or less reliably learned about the latter only from the 9th century. The date of the official founding of Novgorod is considered to be 859, but historians note that the city itself appeared much earlier; it is simply not possible to establish the exact time.
The fact is that all the buildings at that time were completely wooden. Consequently, they easily burned and rotted, and little remained of them. And the activities of people who lived on the same land in later centuries almost completely buried the hopes of archaeologists to reliably establish something about those times. In addition, many written references to the Principality of Novgorod disappeared due to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. A huge number of documents simply perished in the fire.
However, from what we have been able to establish, it becomes clear that Principality of Novgorod became acquainted with statehood quite early. And local historians even suggest that Rurik was here. But no confirmation has yet been found, only assumptions.
The earliest records concern the sons of Svyatoslav, Oleg and Yaropolk. A power struggle broke out between them. As a result of fierce battles, Yaropolk defeated his brother and became the Grand Duke, capturing Kyiv. He chose mayors to govern Novgorod. Who were killed by their younger brother, Vladimir, who fled to the Varangians, from where he returned with a mercenary army, received power first in Novgorod, and then in Kyiv. And it was his son, Yaroslav the Wise, who refused to pay tribute to Kyiv. Vladimir, who was gathering a squad to deal with this problem, suddenly died. Power was seized by Svyatopolk the Accursed, who fought rather brutally for power without choosing any methods. But in the end, Yaroslav won, largely with the help of the support of the people, who feared a more cruel prince. Now Yaroslav became the Grand Duke, and he began to send his sons to Novgorod.
Even brief retelling A relatively short period of time, relating to events from the 9th to the 11th centuries, clearly shows that the Novgorod principality had time to get used to both the frequent change of princes and the constant struggle for power between them. It is noticeable that the majority sought to seize the throne, ultimately in Kyiv. Staying in Novgorod was often considered as an intermediate option. What affected a certain perception of princely power by the people: firstly, as temporary, and secondly, inextricably linked with war, squads and campaigns.
At the same time, Novgorod was a fairly large city, where a kind of democracy with elements of oligarchy gradually began to form. This became especially noticeable during the period of feudal fragmentation, when the prince was forced to sign a charter (agreement), on the basis of which he could legally stay in the city. At the same time, his powers were greatly limited. In particular, the prince could not declare war or make peace, independently trade, distribute lands, or grant privileges to anyone. He did not even have the right to hunt in the wrong place or keep a squad in the city itself: the latter was due to the fear that power would be seized by force.
In fact, the figure of the prince was reduced to the role of a military leader, a commander who was obliged to defend the city and received certain privileges in this regard. But his position often remained precarious. In order to gather people other than his own squad, for example, for a military campaign, the prince could address the residents at a people's meeting, which remained the highest authority. But he had no right to order.
Any free man could take part in the meeting. The meeting was convened by the mayor or the thousand, whom the veche appointed, taking away this right over time from the prince. The assembly was also considered the highest judicial body. The posadnik was the highest official who received ambassadors in the absence of the prince and led the armed forces in the same conditions. Tysyatsky was his right hand and assistant. Exact date the actions of their powers were not specified, but everyone could lose their position by losing the trust of the people. The Veche had the right to remove anyone it appointed from the relevant position. In general, the breadth of powers is clearly demonstrated by the fact that in Novgorod even a bishop was elected at a people's meeting.
As for the Boyar Council, it, in fact, dealt with trade issues. It also served as an advisory body. United all influential people, headed by the prince. I was preparing questions that were worth bringing up at the meeting.
Times of feudal fragmentation
The uniqueness of the Novgorod principality was fully manifested during the period of feudal fragmentation. Historically, such a division is usually assessed negatively, and it really had an extremely negative impact on the Slavs, making them vulnerable to the Tatar-Mongol yoke. But for individual lands this had its advantages. In particular, geographical location The Novgorod principality gave him some protection: it turned out to be quite far away even for nomads, and as a result, less than all other lands suffered from the actions of the Mongols. The Russian princes were much better at defending the western borders. And thanks to fragmentation, Novgorodians did not get involved in the problems of their neighbors.
Also, do not forget that the Novgorod land itself was quite large. It was comparable in size to European states of the same period. And its favorable geographical position allowed it to establish trade with the Hansa and some other neighbors. In addition to Novgorod itself, the principality included Pskov, Yuryev, Ladoga, Torzhok and other territories, including even part of the Urals. Through Novgorod it was possible to gain access to the Neva and the Baltic Sea. But it was not only the geographical location that made the principality so unique, but a combination of various factors, political, economic and cultural. And religious ones, too.
Life, religion and culture
With regard to such a state phenomenon as the Principality of Novgorod, the description will not be complete if attention is not paid to issues of religion, culture and life. The baptism of Novgorod took place shortly after Kyiv, from where the Byzantine priest Joachim Korsunanin was sent for this purpose. But, like many Slavs, the Novgorodians did not immediately abandon pagan beliefs. It got to the point that the Christian religion, not wanting to constantly face resistance from its flock, absorbed some traditions, combining them with Christmas (fortune telling and other rituals).
As for culture, a careful study of the chronicles shows that here, until the capture of the Novgorod principality in the 15th century by Ivan III, a fairly good level of writing and education was maintained. It also affected that these lands suffered less than others from the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Much knowledge was passed on from parents to children and was preserved. Which, in turn, affected everyday life. Thus, Novgorodians were ardent adherents of wooden housing construction, cleanliness, and certain rituals associated with nature. The identified cultural layer is so powerful that it is still being studied.
Become a Kyiv prince. Before the start of strife, Novgorod was customarily owned by the prince who ruled in Kyiv. He sent his governor to Novgorod. “Mr. Veliky Novgorod” was what the Novgorodians, distinguished by their pride and independence, called their principality-state, spread over vast spaces and possessing untold riches.
The city of Novgorod, the center of the principality, is located on the Volkhov River at its source at Lake Ilmen. The river divided the city into two parts. On the right bank was the Trade Side, where the main market was located - trading. On the left, on the Sofia side, there is the Church of St. Sophia and Detinets (Novgorod Kremlin). The trade side was divided into two parts (ends), the Sofia side into three. The five ends of the city were independent districts with their own self-government. The vast Novgorod land from Lake Ladoga and Onega to the upper reaches of the Volga was divided into five regions (pyatin).
In addition, vast lands outside the principality itself were subordinate to Novgorod, the so-called Novgorod lands - along the Northern Dvina, on the shores of the White Sea, along the Pechora and Kama rivers to Perm and the Ural Mountains. Detachments of Novgorodians, the so-called ushkuiniki (from the name of the boat - ushkuy), crossed Kamen, beyond the Ural Mountains. The Novgorod principality included 14 large cities at that time. The suburbs of Novgorod were Pskov (later separated into an independent principality), Izborsk, Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Novy Torg (Torzhok).
Novgorod was surrounded by strong and aggressive neighbors: in the east - the Rostov-Suzdal Principality, in the west - Lithuania and the possessions of German knightly orders in the Baltic states. On the territory of the vast Principality of Novgorod there were untold riches: furs, honey, wax, timber, metal. The geographical location turned Novgorod into the largest trading center of Ancient Rus'. Trade ties united Novgorod with the Hanseatic League (a union of Baltic trading cities - Riga, Lubeck, Hamburg) with other German cities. The Hanseatic and Gothic (Germanic) trading yards were located in Novgorod. Novgorod merchants could be found in all cities Ancient Rus'. But the Novgorod land was infertile. Novgorodians imported bread from the Rostov-Suzdal principality.
The Principality of Novgorod is often called a “republic” in historical literature. N.I. Kostomarov defined the political system of Novgorod and Pskov as “rule of the people.”
The isolation of Novgorod and its formation government system Several objective reasons contributed:
- First. The isolation of the Novgorod land, its distance from other Russian principalities. Even the Tatar-Mongols were unable to enter the city, because in the spring the roads to the city were impassable.
- Second. The vast Novgorod region stretched to the north and northeast, where small nations lived and from where Novgorod drew its enormous wealth. Trade relations with the West turned it into a kind of “window” to Europe for all of Rus'.
- Third. Thanks to their enormous wealth, the Novgorod boyars and merchants were independent and had the opportunity to pursue their own policies.
- Fourth. Decay Kyiv State, princely strife and confusion facilitated the isolation of Novgorod and the establishment of its political system.
The turning point in the establishment of the Novgorod freemen were the events of 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod and put him in prison with his entire family. Moreover, two months later the prince was released, but it was from then on, according to the chronicler, that expulsion and invitation of princes became possible. In 1140, the Novgorodians expelled Svyatoslav, brother of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vsevolod Olgovich. In a word, if the prince was not liked or violated the agreement, he was “showed the way.” It happened that the princes left on their own when they were convinced that they could not get along with the Novgorodians.
And yet princely power in Novgorod remained. Having expelled one prince, the population called for another. The chronicles include the terms “pozvasha”, “recognize”, “posadisha” of the prince. Why did the Novgorodians need a prince, what were his powers? The prince and his squad were needed as a fighting force. Novgorod was always threatened by enemies, and it was necessary to fight them off. It is known that even Prince Alexander Nevsky, who won major victories over the Swedes and German knights and saved the independence of Novgorod, they were also expelled. The prince held court. Constant infighting between residents required authoritative intervention and an objective court to “love the good and execute the evil.”
The Novgorodians concluded a “row” (agreement) with the prince with the kissing of the cross, which stipulated mutual obligations. Thus, the prince and his squad did not have the right to acquire land and servants in the Novgorod possessions, or to independently trade with foreign merchants. The prince was supposed to live not in the city, but in the place allotted to him - Gorodishche. There were other restrictions on princely power.
The head of the Novgorod administration was mayor At first he was appointed by the prince, and in the middle of the 12th century. this position became elective. The place of mayor was usually occupied by the richest and most noble boyars. The elected mayor was supposed to protect the interests of the Novgorodians. The mayor was in charge of the local administration. Another elected position was thousand - leader of the Novgorod militia (thousands). Commanders of hundreds and dozens were subordinate to him (Sotskie And tenths). The militia took part in campaigns together with the princely squad.
From the second half of the 12th century. the head of the church began to be elected - bishop(later archbishop). The Kyiv Metropolitan only approved the elected candidate. The Novgorod ruler had broad powers. He kept in St. Sophia Cathedral the city treasury, samples of weights and measures, monitored the procedure for weighing and measuring goods. The vast state land holdings of Novgorod were also subordinate to him. The city archive was also kept in the St. Sophia Cathedral; a chronicle was compiled under the leadership of the bishop. The bishop's role in foreign policy and foreign trade was great. Agreements with the union of Baltic trading cities (Hansa), signed by the Novgorod ruler Dolmat (third quarter of the 13th century), have been preserved. In case of violation of contracts, foreign merchants complained to the ruler.
The main governing body in Novgorod was veche - a meeting of citizens who have their own homes, heads of families. The veche met in the so-called Yaroslav's courtyard, near the shopping area. Here stood a tower with a veche bell, a symbol of Novgorod freedom. At the ringing of the bell, people rushed to the veche square. Discussions were heated, and decisions were made without voting, with the general consent of the streets and ends. Sharp disagreements often arose, which ended in a fight on the large bridge across the Volkhov. In such cases, the prince could act as a mediator. Archaeological excavations have shown that the veche square was not very large and could accommodate no more than 300-400 people.
Consequently, only the most influential and noble citizens participated in the meetings. In 1471, the Novgorod veche adopted and approved the Sudebnik (judgment charter). The veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned the prince and concluded an agreement with him, settled disputes with the prince, elected a mayor, a thousand, and a ruler. The Veche was the highest court for the most important crimes requiring the most severe punishment (death penalty and confiscation of property). The veche was in charge foreign policy and all matters of defense (raising troops, building fortresses, etc.). The ends and streets of the city had their own local government, their own councils gathered, which elected “Konchansky” and “Ulichansky” (uniting street residents) elders.
He played a major role in the governance of Novgorod. advice of gentlemen It consisted of working and former mayors and thousand, “Konchansky” and “Ulichansky” elders. The Council of Gentlemen previously discussed all the issues that were brought up at the meeting. According to the conclusion of V.O. Klyuchevsky, it was “a hidden but very active spring of the Novgorod administration.”
The territory of Novgorod land developed gradually. Its center was the ancient region of Slavic settlement, located in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov, Lovat, Meta and Mologa rivers. The extreme northern point was the city of Ladoga - a strong fortress at the mouth of the Volkhov. Subsequently, this ancient region acquired new territories, some of which organically merged with the original core of the Novgorod land, others formed a kind of colony of Novgorod.
In the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod owned lands in the north along Lake Onega, the Lake Ladoga basin and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. In the west, Novgorod fortified itself in the Peipsi land, where the city of Yuryev (Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise, became its stronghold. But the growth of Novgorod's possessions was particularly rapid in the northeastern direction, where Novgorod owned a strip of land stretching to the Urals and beyond the Urals.
The Novgorod lands themselves were divided into five large areas of Pyatina, corresponding to the five ends (districts) of Novgorod. To the northwest of Novgorod, towards the Gulf of Finland, the Vodskaya Pyatina ran, it covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe; to the southwest, on both sides of the Shelona River - Shelonskaya Pyatina; to the southeast, between the Dostaya and Lovatyo rivers - Derevskaya Pyatina; to the northeast (From the White Sea but both sides of Lake Onega - Onega Pyatina; behind Derevskop and Onega Pyatina, to the southeast, lay the Bezhetskaya Pyatina.
In addition to Pyatina, a huge space was occupied by Novgorod volosts - Zavolochye, or Dvina land - in the Northern Dvina region. Perm land - along the course of the Vychegda and its tributaries, on both sides of the Pechora - the Pechora region, to the east of the Northern Urals - Yugra, to the north, within the Onega and Ladoga lakes - Korela, and finally, on the Kola Peninsula - the so-called Tersky coast.
The population of the Novgorod land was mainly engaged in agriculture, primarily farming, which formed the basis of the Novgorod economy. Novgorod boyars and clergy had extensive estates. Merchant land ownership was also developed here.
In the agriculture of the Novgorod patches, the arable system predominated; cutting was preserved only in the extreme northern regions. Due to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, harvests were not high, therefore, despite the widespread use of agriculture, it still did not cover the needs of the Novgorod population for bread. Part of the grain had to be imported from other Russian lands, mainly from Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan. In lean years, which were a frequent occurrence in the life of the Novgorod land, the import of grain acquired decisive importance.
Along with agriculture and cattle breeding, the population of the Novgorod land was engaged in various trades: hunting for fur-bearing and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, and the development of salt in Staraya Russa and on Vychegda, iron ore mining in Votskaya Pyatina. In the center of the Novgorod land - Novgorod and its suburb - Pskov, craft and trade flourished. Novgorod has long been famous for its artisans, carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths; in addition, shoemakers, tanners, felt makers, bridge workers and many other artisans of various specialties lived there. Novgorodian carpenters were sent to work in Kyiv and became so famous for their art that the term “Novgorodian” often meant “carpenter.”
Domestic and foreign trade were of great importance in the economy of Novgorod. The most important trade routes of that time passed through Novgorod Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin and from Western countries to countries of Eastern Europe. This has long contributed to the development of crafts and trade in it.
Enterprising Novgorod merchants already in the 10th century. sailed in their fragile little boats along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” reaching the shores of Byzantium. Extensive exchange existed between Novgorod and European states. At first, Novgorod was connected with the island of Gotland - a large shopping center Northwestern Europe. In Novgorod itself there was a Gothic court - a trading colony, surrounded by a high wall, with barns and houses for resident foreign merchants. In the second half of the 12th century. Close trade ties between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hansa) were established. A new German trading court was built in Novgorod, and a new trading colony grew up. On the territory of these trading colonies, foreign merchants were inviolable. A special charter “Skra” regulated the life of the trading colony.
Cloth, metals, weapons and other goods came to Novgorod from abroad. From Novgorod to different countries they carried linen, hemp, flax, lard, wax, etc. The role of Novgorod as a mediator in exchanges between the West and the East was significant. Eastern goods for Europe went along the Volga to Novgorod, and then to Western countries. Only the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the dominance of the Golden Horde undermined this intermediary significance of Novgorod.
No less important role For Novgorod, trade played within the Novgorod Republic itself and with North-Eastern Russia, from where it received the bread it needed. The need for bread has always forced Novgorod to value its relations with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes.
The numerous and powerful Novgorod merchants had their own organizations similar to Western European merchant guilds. The most powerful of them was the so-called “Ivanovo hundred”, which had great privileges. It elected five elders from among itself, who, together with the thousand, were in charge of all trade affairs and the trade court in Novgorod, established measures of weight, measures of length, and monitored the correctness of trade itself.
The structure of the Novgorod economy determined its social and political system. The ruling class in Novgorod were secular and spiritual feudal lords, landowners and wealthy Novgorod merchants. Vast land holdings were in the hands of the Novgorod boyars and the church. One of the foreign travelers - Lalua - testifies that in Novgorod there were such lords who owned lands for hundreds of miles. An example is the boyar family Boretsky, which owned vast territories along the White Sea and Northern Dvina.
In addition to the boyars and the church, there were also large landowners in Novgorod who were engaged in various trades. These are the so-called “living people”.
The owners of estates exploited the labor of feudal-dependent people - “ladles”, “guarantors”, “old people”. The main form of exploitation of the feudal-dependent population in the Novgorod land was the collection of quitrents.
Large feudal lords were masters of the situation not only in their estates, but also in the city. Together with the merchant elite, they formed the city patriciate, in whose hands was the economic and political life of Novgorod.
The peculiarities of the socio-economic development of Novgorod determined the establishment of a special political system in it, different from other Russian lands. Initially, prince-governors, sent by the great princes of Kyiv, sat in Novgorod. They appointed mayors and mayors. But the strong Novgorod boyars and rich townspeople were increasingly reluctant to submit to the henchmen of the Kyiv prince. In 1136, the Novgorodians rebelled against Prince Vsevolod and, says the chronicler, “they brought Prince Vsevolod into the bishop’s courtyard with his wife and children, his mother-in-law and the guard. 30 husband for a day with a weapon.” Then Vsevolod was exiled to Pskov. From this time on, a new political order was established in Novgorod.
The veche became the supreme body in Novgorod - national assembly. The veche was usually convened by the mayor or tysyatsky. It was convened on the trading side of the Yaroslavl courtyard with the ringing of the veche bell. Biryuchi and underlings were sent to the ends to call people to the veche gathering. All free people, men, could participate in the meeting. The Veche had great powers. It elected a posadnik, a thousand, previously appointed by a prince, a Novgorod bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried posadniks, a thousand, a sotsky for crimes, and concluded treaties with foreign powers. The veche finally invited the prince, and sometimes expelled him (“showed him the way”), replacing him with a new one.
Executive power in Novgorod was concentrated in the hands of the mayor and the thousand. The mayor was elected for an indefinite term, he controlled the prince, monitored the activities of the Novgorod authorities, and was in his hands Supreme Court Republic, the right to remove and appoint officials. In case of military danger, the mayor went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. By order of the mayor, the veche, which he headed, gathered by ringing the bell. The mayor received foreign ambassadors and, in the absence of the prince, commanded the Novgorod army. Tysyatsky was the first assistant to the mayor, commanded separate detachments during the war, and in peacetime he was in charge of trade affairs and the commercial court.
The so-called poralye, i.e., was in favor of the mayor and tysyatsky. known income from the plow; This income served the mayor and the thousand as a certain salary.
The political life of Novgorod was greatly influenced by the Novgorod bishop, and from 1165 - by the archbishop. The church court was in his hands, he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and foreign states, and most importantly, he was the largest of the Novgorod feudal lords.
With the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod from Novgorod in 1136, the Novgorodians did not completely eliminate the prince, but the importance and role of the prince in Novgorod changed dramatically. The Novgorodians now themselves elected (invited) one or another prince at the veche, concluding a “row” agreement with him, which extremely limited the rights and range of activities of the prince. The prince could not declare war or make peace without an agreement with the veche. He did not have the right to acquire land in the Novgorod possessions. He could collect tribute, but only in certain volosts assigned to him. In all his activities, the prince was controlled by the mayor. In short, the Novgorod prince was a “fed” prince. He was only a military specialist who was supposed to be at the head of the Novgorod army in times of military danger. Judicial and administrative functions were taken away from him and transferred to the initial people - the townspeople and the thousand.
The Novgorod princes, as a rule, were the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, the most powerful of the Russian princes. They persistently sought to subjugate Veliky Novgorod to their power, but the latter resolutely fought for its liberties.
The defeat of the Suzdal troops in 1216 on the Lipitsa River ended this struggle. Novgorod finally turned into a feudal boyar republic.
Formed in Novgorod and separated from it in the 14th century. In Pskov, the veche system existed until their annexation to Moscow.
It should be noted that the veche system in Novgorod was by no means a democracy. In fact, all power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. Next to the veche, the Novgorod elite created their own aristocratic body - the council of gentlemen. It included the sedate (i.e. active) posadnik and tysyatsky, former posadniks and tysyatsky, and elders of the Novgorod ends. The chairman of the council of gentlemen was the Novgorod archbishop. The council of gentlemen met in the archbishop's chambers and decided in advance all matters that were brought before the veche meeting. Gradually, the council of gentlemen began to replace the veche resolutions with their decisions.
The people protested against the violence of the masters. The veche life of Novgorod knows more than one example of a clash between the feudal nobility and the general population.
Administrative division.
Novgorod was divided by Volkhov into two parts, or sides, the Trade and Sofia. These sides were connected by the Great Bridge. The trading side received its name from the trading place located there, that is, the market. At the auction there was Yaroslav's courtyard, where the veche gathered, the stage was the platform from which speeches were made at the veche. Near the degree there was a tower with a veche bell, and the veche office was also located there. The Sofia side received its name from the St. Sophia Cathedral located there.
Novgorod was also divided into 5 ends or districts: Slavensky and Plotnitsky made up the Trade side, and Nerevsky, Zagorodsky and Goncharsky made up the Sofia side. The division into ends was historical. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or villages, which at first were independent settlements, and then united to form a city (1). Slavenskoe end used to be a separate city - Slovenskoye. In the middle of the 9th century, the Rurik settlement became the residence of the princes, and the Novaya fortress was built opposite Slovensk, which soon became Novgorod. The Zagorodsky End, judging by its name, was the last to be formed; initially it was located outside the city, and only after the construction of the fortress could it become part of it. The ends of Plotnitsky and Goncharsky probably used to be working-class suburbs of Slovensk, in which carpenters and potters lived, respectively. The name of the fifth end, Nerevsky, can be explained by the fact that “on the ditch” means “on the outskirts”. That is, the name of the end indicated that it was located on the very outskirts of the city.
Each end was assigned a specific land. There were five pyatinas in total - according to the number of ends: Votskaya, which extended to the north-west of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers towards the Gulf of Finland, which received its name from the Vod tribe that lived here; Obonezhskaya - in the northeast, to the right of Volkhov towards the White Sea; Derevskaya to the southeast, between the rivers Mstoya and Lovat; Shelonskaya to the southwest, between Lovat and Luga, on both sides of the Sheloni River; Bezhetskaya - far to the east and southeast, behind Pyatina Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya.
Most likely, the Novgorod land was divided into pyatins between the ends in order to collect taxes from the population living there in a more systematic way. Perhaps Novgorod regularly redistributed pyatinas between different ends to reduce the likelihood of corruption.
In addition to Pyatina, in the Novgorod Republic there was a division into volosts. Volosts are possessions that are more distant and acquired later (2). The volosts included cities that were jointly owned with other principalities, such as Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi, Torzhok, Rzhev, Velikiye Luki with their districts. Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi and Torzhok were in joint possession with the Grand Dukes of Vladimir, and then of Moscow; and Rzhev and Velikiye Luki - with the princes of Smolensk. The volosts included a vast part of the Novgorod Republic, located in the northeast of Pyatina Bezhetskaya and Obonezhskaya - Dvinskaya land or Zavolochye. On the Vychegda River and its tributaries there was the Perm volost. Further to the northeast was the volost of Pechora on both sides of the river of the same name, and beyond the Ural Mountains was Yugra. On the northern shore of the White Sea there was the volost of Tre, or the Tersky coast.
All administrative-territorial units of the Novgorod Republic enjoyed broad rights. It is known, for example, that ends and pyatins were ruled by elected officials, and Pskov and other cities had their own prince (3).
Social system.
First of all, the Novgorod population was divided into better and lesser people. Moreover, the smaller ones were not smaller in terms of political rights, but only in terms of economic status and actual importance. Actual inequality with complete legal equality became the cause of numerous Novgorod riots.
In addition to the general division into better and lesser, Novgorod society was divided into three classes: the upper class - the boyars, the middle - the living people, natives and merchants, the lower - black people.
The Novgorod boyars, unlike the boyars of other principalities, were not the prince’s squad, but large landowners and capitalists. The boyars stood at the head of the entire Novgorod society. It was formed from the military foreman who ruled Novgorod before the appearance of Rurik. Due to various circumstances, this nobility did not lose its privileged position even under the princes. Already in the 11th century. The princes who ruled Novgorod appointed people from the local society to local government positions. Thus, the Novgorod administration became native in its personnel even before it became elected (4). The boyars were the main political force in Novgorod. Receiving colossal income from their lands, the boyars had the opportunity to bribe “screamers” at the assembly and carry out the decisions they needed. In addition, possessing large capital, the boyars lent them to merchants and thus stood at the head of trade turnover.
The middle class of Novgorod society was mainly represented by living people. Living people are the population of average income. They were a kind of shareholders investing in development international trade. Receiving income from their lands, living people invested them in merchant enterprises, from which they made a profit. In the political life of the city, this class carried out judicial and diplomatic assignments from the Council of Gentlemen and represented the ends in which they lived.
Unlike other Russian principalities, Novgorod retained a class of small landowners - homeowners. But the land ownership of their own landowners was somewhat different from the usual boyar land ownership - their own landowners very rarely owned lands alone. Usually, fellow residents cultivated and acquired land together - some semblance of a peasant community. The natives either cultivated their land themselves or rented it out to peasants. The natives differed from the peasants in that they had full rights to the land. They were mostly city dwellers who bought plots of land, like today's summer residents, only the lands of their own people were larger and were mostly rented out. The natives formed together into agricultural partnerships, called syabrs or storekeepers.
The merchant class was a trading class that profited from profitable geographical location Novgorod. Merchants mainly worked with the help of the capital of the boyars and living people. The Novgorod merchants conducted large transit trade and had their own land holdings. Gradually, the merchant class began to divide into “hundreds.” Each hundred had its own charter, its own privileges. The most privileged merchant society was called the “Ivanovo hundred” and met at the Church of John the Baptist. According to its charter, in order to become a full and hereditary member of this society, it was necessary to contribute 50 hryvnia of silver. The council of the society, consisting of two merchant elders chaired by a thousand, was in charge of all trade affairs and the commercial court in Novgorod (5).
The population that did not belong to the first two classes was called “black people.” Of course, black people made up the majority of the population of the Novgorod Republic. These included artisans and small traders who lived in cities, as well as the rural population: smerdas and zemstvos. They were responsible for the construction and repair of bridges and roads, the construction of churches and city fortifications, war time were conscripted into the militia. Black people, like the entire free population of Novgorod, had the right to take part in the meetings.
The bulk of the rural population were stinkers. Initially, they had their own farm and paid tribute to the state. With the development of boyar land ownership, they increasingly turned into an economically dependent population.
Gradually, the smerds fell into two categories - community members, who paid taxes to Novgorod, and smerds, who were divided into mortgage holders and ladles. The mortgagees were peasants who left the community and became dependent on the boyars. Ladles were peasants who lived on the lands of private owners. They got their name from the type of land rent - half the harvest. But in Novgorod land there were also more preferential rental conditions - a third or a quarter of the harvest all depended on the value of the land in a given place. Ladles performed duties only in favor of their own master. According to the type of work, ladles were divided into izorniks (plowmen), gardeners and kochetniks (fishermen). The ladle had the right to leave his master once a year within the period established by law - Philip's plot. Before leaving, the ladle had to fully repay his debt to the master.
The most powerless group of the population in Novgorod were the zemstvos (slaves). Zemtsy gradually lost their rights with the development of boyar land ownership. Initially, a zemstvo could not be judged without his master. The agreement between the Novgorodians and Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich in 1270 decided not to believe the denunciations of slaves against their masters.
Veche and Council of Gentlemen.
The highest bodies of state power in Novgorod were the veche and the Council of Gentlemen.
In its origin, the Novgorod veche was a city meeting, similar to the others that existed in other cities of Rus' in the 12th century (6). The Veche was not a permanent body. It was not convened periodically, but only when there was a real need for it. Most often this happened during wars, uprisings and the conscription of princes. The veche was convened by the prince, mayor or thousand on the Trade side of the city, at the Yaroslav's courtyard, or the veche was convened by the will of the people, on the Sofia or Trade side. It consisted of residents of both Novgorod and its suburbs; There were no restrictions among Novgorod citizens: every free and independent person could go to the assembly. The veche met by the ringing of the veche bell.
In fact, the veche consisted of those who could come to it, that is, mainly residents of Novgorod, since the convening of the veche was not announced in advance. But sometimes delegates from large suburbs of Novgorod, such as Pskov, Ladoga and others, were present at the meeting. For example, Ladoga and Pskov residents attended the meeting in 1136. More often, however, residents of the suburbs came to the meeting to complain about one or another decision of the Novgorodians. So, in 1384, the residents of Orekhov and Korela sent their delegates to Novgorod with a complaint against the Lithuanian prince Patricius, who had been imprisoned by the Novgorodians. Issues to be discussed at the veche were proposed to him by the prince, mayor or thousand. The veche had legislative initiative and resolved issues foreign policy and internal structure, and also judged the most important crimes. The veche had the right to pass laws, invite and expel the prince, elect, judge and remove the mayor and mayor from office, resolve their disputes with the princes, resolve issues of war and peace, distribute volosts for feeding to the princes.
The decisions of the meeting were made unanimously; In case of disagreement, the veche was divided into parties, and the strongest forced the weakest to agree. Sometimes, as a result of strife, two meetings were convened; one on Torgovaya, the other on the Sofia side. The conflict ended with both parties meeting on the Great Bridge and fighting if the intervention of the clergy did not prevent bloodshed.
At the veche there was no concept of a quorum, and hence one time the entire population of the city could be at the veche and not pass the law, and another time - a hundredth part of the population and pass a law that was beneficial only to this part. The result of the vote was determined not by the number of votes, but by the strength of the throats of those shouting: for which they shouted louder, it was considered accepted.
Since the veche did not meet constantly, but only when it was convened, a permanent body of power was needed that would administer the Novgorod Republic. The Council of Gentlemen became such a body of power. It consisted of old and sedate posadniks, thousanders, sotskies and an archbishop. The council had an aristocratic character, the number of its members in the 15th century. reached 50. This body developed from the ancient institution of power - the boyar duma of the prince with the participation of city elders. In the 12th century. The prince invited city councilors and elders to his council with his boyars. As the prince lost organic ties with local Novgorod society, he and the boyars were gradually forced out of the council. He was replaced by the local ruler - the Archbishop, who became the permanent chairman of the Council.
Frequent changes of senior officials in Novgorod became the reason for the rapid growth of the composition of the Council of Gentlemen. All members of the Council, except the chairman, were called boyars.
The Council of Gentlemen prepared and introduced legislative issues at the meeting, presented ready-made bills, but it did not have its own voice in the adoption of laws. The Council also carried out general supervision over the work of the state apparatus and officials of the republic, and controlled the activities of the executive branch. He, together with the prince, the mayor and the thousand, decided on the convening of the veche and subsequently directed all its activities.
The Council of Gentlemen was of great importance in the political life of Novgorod. It consisted of representatives of the highest Novgorod class, which had a powerful economic influence on the entire city; this preparatory council often predetermined the questions raised by it at the veche, conducting among the citizens the answers it had prepared. Thus, the veche very often became a weapon to give the decisions of the Council legitimacy in the eyes of citizens.