Introduction

In terms of thermal water reserves, Dagestan ranks first in Russian Federation. Dagestan is a unique geothermal province of Russia. The large-scale development of geothermy here is facilitated by favorable geothermal and hydrogeological conditions of a large thermal aquifer basin of a multilayer type.

In terms of thermal intensity of the subsoil, the territory of Dagestan exceeds all known sedimentary basins of the CIS, with the exception of areas of modern volcanism.

Temperatures at depths of 3-6 km here are recorded at 140-210? C, which is 80-100? C higher than in Azerbaijan, Astrakhan and Rostov regions. In Dagestan, geothermal heat supply systems have been successfully operating for many years in the cities of Makhachkala, Kizlyar and Izberbash.

Geologically, Dagestan is located at the junction of two largest geological and tectonic structures (the Caucasian geosyncline and the Russian platform) and occupies the southeastern part of the Eastern Ciscaucasia.

Analysis of geological-tectonic, hydrodynamic, hydrogeological, geothermal, seismic and other natural conditions made it possible to identify four hydrogeothermal regions on the territory of Dagestan: Slantsevy, Limestone, Predgorny and Platform, which in turn are divided into smaller hydrogeological structures.

The objective of this work is to study the sources of geothermal energy potential in the Republic of Dagestan.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy refers to the physical heat of the deep layers of the earth, which has a temperature higher than the air temperature on the surface. Both liquid fluids (water and/or steam-water mixture) and dry rocks located at the appropriate depth can act as carriers of this energy. From the hot interior of the Earth, a heat flow constantly flows to its surface, the intensity of which, on average over the Earth’s surface, is about 0.03 W/mI. Under the influence of this flow, depending on the properties of the rocks, a temperature gradient arises - the so-called geothermal step. In most places, the geothermal stage is no more than 2-3ºC/100m.

Today, it is economically feasible to use only thermal waters and hydrothermal steam as sources of geothermal energy for heat generation and/or electricity production. Easily accessible geothermal deposits with temperatures over 100? C at globe relatively little.

To produce electricity with acceptable technical and economic indicators, the temperature must be at least 100? C.

Currently, the total capacity of geothermal power plants operating in the world is about 10 GW(e). The total capacity of existing geothermal heating systems is estimated at approximately 20 GW(e).

The main problems of geothermal heat supply are related to salt deposition and corrosion resistance of materials and equipment operating in aggressive environments.

In order to avoid pollution of the environment, rivers and reservoirs with mineral compounds extracted from the bowels of the earth modern technologies The use of geothermal energy involves the reinjection of spent geothermal fluid into the formation.

Fig 1.

1-steam generator? 2- steam accumulator? 3-turbine? 4- ejector? 5- capacitor? 6.7 pumps? ES - production well? NS - injection well.

What is geothermal energy? This term refers to the production of heat energy and electricity, which uses energy from the bowels of the earth. This type energy does almost no harm to the environment. One kilowatt of electricity produced with the “assistance” of hot geothermal sources leads to the release of 13-380 grams of carbon dioxide, while in the case of coal, for example, the situation is much worse (1042 grams per kilowatt per hour).

Although, the heat that the earth’s depths conceal is not “concentrated” - in many areas it is possible to benefit from only a small part of the energy.

There are five types of geothermal energy sources:

Magma is rocks whose temperature is 1300 degrees Celsius, in a molten state;

Rocks heated to very high temperatures by magma, remaining in a dry state;

Geothermal water sources that contain water and steam, or only water (hot); they arise as follows: voids in the ground are filled with water as a result of precipitation, after which this water is heated by magma located nearby;

Wet steam deposits; The disadvantage of these deposits is that thermal power plants for them have to be organized in such a way as to prevent corrosion of the equipment, as well as to minimize the harmful effects on environment;

Dry steam sources; There are relatively few of them, but they are quite easy to develop. 50% of the planet’s geothermal power plants operate using dry steam sources.

Sources of hot water, as well as natural steam, are currently used more than others. Although, for full development geothermal energy in the future we will have to develop hot rocks. Their temperature is more than one hundred degrees at a depth of three to five kilometers.

Heat from the bowels of the earth can be “converted” into electricity provided that the coolant has a temperature of 150 degrees (or more). For this purpose, special structures called geoelectric power stations are erected. Energy at geoelectric power plants is “extracted” using one of the following methods:

Indirect scheme. The steam enters turbines, which are connected to electricity generators, by passing through pipes. In this case, the steam, before ending up in the pipes, undergoes “treatment” - gases that have a destructive effect on the pipe material are extracted from it.

Direct scheme. Everything happens in exactly the same way, with the difference that when using this scheme, the steam purification stage is skipped - the latter goes straight into the pipes.

Mixed scheme. It is similar to the previous scheme, but in this case, after condensation, the water is cleared of gases that are not dissolved in it.

At the moment, over eight dozen states are using the “thermal wealth” that the Earth conceals within itself. At the same time, seven dozen countries are using the capabilities of geothermal energy, building swimming pools, greenhouses, and improving the health of the population, and twenty-five countries have geothermal power plants at their disposal.

The geothermal power plants that humanity currently has are capable of providing electricity to one percent of the Earth's population (equal to 60 million people).

As for Russia, it cannot boast of the development of this area, although there are a lot of energy reserves in the earth's interior on its territory - even more than reserves of fossil fuels. At the same time, a larger number of “deposits” are located on the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, but few people live in these areas, the terrain is difficult and earthquakes often occur - in a word, the conditions are not the best.

More promising in this regard are the Kaliningrad region, Stavropol, Krasnodar territories - they can boast of the presence of reserves of thermal waters. Chukotka also has geothermal sources, and some of them are already provided by local settlements energy. For quite a long time, geothermal resources have been used in the North Caucasus, supplying heat and hot water to residents, using them in industry and agriculture. The benefits of geothermal energy are also available to people living in the West Siberian region, the Baikal region, and Primorye.

Experts say that in Lately Russia is increasingly working towards the use of geothermal resources. It should be mentioned that, at the moment, the share of electricity obtained from geothermal energy is total number The energy “supplied” by alternative sources is tiny, barely reaching 0.2%.

Man has learned to use the energy of underground pools and hot water in the bowels of the earth, which manifests itself in the form of sulfurous mud lakes, geysers and fumaroles in areas of seismic and volcanic activity.

The main source of geothermal energy is radioactive decay - residual heat from the formation of the planet. Geothermal energy resources are divided into dry hot steam, hot water and wet hot steam.

1. Surface geothermal energy is obtained at depths of up to 400 m. Due to the fact that the temperature of the earth's crust is more stable than the air temperature, it is the optimal source of cooling and heating for buildings. At a depth of approximately 15 m, depending on geological conditions, the temperature of the upper layers of the earth's crust is subject to seasonal fluctuations and the influence of solar radiation. To harness surface geothermal energy, geothermal probes, geothermal collectors, energy piles and other ground-contact concrete blocks are used. Heat extracted from shallow depths is supplemented by heat pumps to supply homes with heat or hot water.
2. Sources of wet steam, hot and thermal water at the surface of the earth, currently used to generate electrical energy, their use raises the problem of corrosion of the metal of the equipment and removal of condensate due to its high degree of salinity.
3. Heat concentrated in deep heated cavities with little or no water is called energy based on dry heated rock. To place the reservoir, crystalline or dense sedimentary rocks are used at depths of 3 to 6 km with high temperatures.
4. Magma, which is molten rocks heated to 1300 o C and heat accumulated under volcanoes.

Just 1% of the energy of the earth's crust, located at a depth of 10 km, can provide energy 500 times greater than all the world's oil and gas reserves.

Due to economic reasons and insufficient experience in the development of geothermal resources, as well as depending on the geological parameters of the location of the resources: depth, parameters and composition of the working fluid, currently these resources are used quite little.

In the future, the development of the use of magmatic heat, the use of heated crystalline rocks, involves drilling wells to a depth of several kilometers with subsequent injection cold water to heat it up.

Heat in the form of hot springs and geysers can be used to produce electricity through various schemes in geothermal power plants (GEP).

Electricity is generated in three ways:

1. Using dry steam to rotate the turbine;
2. The use of superheated water, which, under pressure, comes to the surface, followed by conversion into steam, which is separated into water aimed at rotating the turbine, is the most easily feasible scheme.
3. The use of a binary cycle, rotation of a turbine with steam obtained by heating the working fluid (isobutane or freon).

Due to the aggressiveness of water, it cannot be used directly to rotate the turbine; therefore, steam obtained through steam generation from a water heat exchanger is used. Natural steam is used to evaporate water, it is acid-free and can be safely used in a turbine. Natural underground steam is condensed in an evaporator, and boric acid, or lithium, is extracted from the condensate.

The main advantage of geothermal energy is its inexhaustibility and independence from the environment.

It is possible to simultaneously use this type of energy both for electricity generation and for heat supply and hot water supply.

The use of geothermal energy has serious environmental consequences: thermal, gas, and salt pollution of the environment. The presence of salts of toxic metals and various chemical compounds makes it impossible to discharge water into natural sources. When using thermal waters, it becomes necessary to reinject waste water into the underground aquifer.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Skotarev Ivan Nikolaevich

2nd year student, department physicists SSAU, Stavropol

Khashchenko Andrey Alexandrovich

scientific supervisor, can. physics and mathematics sciences, Associate Professor, St. State Agrarian University, Stavropol

Nowadays humanity doesn’t think much about what it will leave to future generations. People mindlessly pump and dig up minerals. Every year the population of the planet is growing, and therefore the need for even more energy resources such as gas, oil and coal is increasing. This cannot continue for long. Therefore, now, in addition to the development of the nuclear industry, the use of alternative energy sources is becoming relevant. One of the promising areas in this area is geothermal energy.

Most of the surface of our planet has significant reserves of geothermal energy due to significant geological activity: active volcanic activity in the initial periods of the development of our planet and also to this day, radioactive decay, tectonic shifts and the presence of magma areas in earth's crust. In some places on our planet, especially a lot of geothermal energy accumulates. These are, for example, various valleys of geysers, volcanoes, underground accumulations of magma, which in turn heat the upper rocks.

In simple terms, geothermal energy is the energy of the Earth's interior. For example, volcanic eruptions clearly indicate the enormous temperature inside the planet. This temperature gradually decreases from the hot inner core to the Earth's surface ( picture 1).

Figure 1. Temperature in different layers of the earth

Geothermal energy has always attracted people due to its potential. useful application. After all, man, in the process of his development, came up with many useful technologies and looked for benefit and profit in everything. This is what happened with coal, oil, gas, peat, etc.

For example, in some geographical areas the use of geothermal sources can significantly increase energy production, since geothermal power plants (GeoTES) are one of the cheapest alternative energy sources, because the upper three-kilometer layer of the Earth contains over 1020 J of heat suitable for generating electricity. Nature itself gives a person a unique source of energy; it is only necessary to use it.

There are currently 5 types of geothermal energy sources:

1. Geothermal dry steam deposits.

2. Sources of wet steam. (a mixture of hot water and steam).

3. Geothermal water deposits (contain hot water or steam and water).

4. Dry hot rocks heated by magma.

5. Magma (molten rocks heated to 1300 °C).

Magma transfers its heat to rocks, and their temperature rises with increasing depth. According to available data, the temperature of rocks increases on average by 1 °C for every 33 m of depth (geothermal step). There is great diversity in the world temperature conditions geothermal energy sources, which will determine the technical means for its use.

Geothermal energy can be used in two main ways - to generate electricity and to heat various objects. Geothermal heat can be converted into electricity if the coolant temperature reaches more than 150 °C. It is precisely the use of the internal regions of the Earth for heating that is the most profitable and effective and also very affordable. Direct geothermal heat, depending on the temperature, can be used for heating buildings, greenhouses, swimming pools, drying agricultural and fish products, evaporating solutions, growing fish, mushrooms, etc.

All geothermal installations existing today are divided into three types:

1. stations, the basis for which are dry steam deposits - this is a direct scheme.

Dry steam power plants appeared earlier than anyone else. In order to obtain the required energy, steam is passed through a turbine or generator ( figure 2).

Figure 2. Geothermal power plant of direct circuit

2. stations with a separator using hot water deposits under pressure. Sometimes a pump is used for this, which provides the required volume of incoming energy - an indirect scheme.

This is the most common type of geothermal plant in the world. Here water is pumped under high pressure into generator sets. The hydrothermal solution is pumped into the evaporator to reduce the pressure, resulting in the evaporation of part of the solution. Next, steam is formed, which makes the turbine work. The remaining liquid may also be beneficial. Usually it is passed through another evaporator to obtain additional power ( figure 3).

Figure 3. Indirect geothermal power plant

They are characterized by the absence of interaction between the generator or turbine and steam or water. The principle of their operation is based on the judicious use of underground water at moderate temperatures.

Typically the temperature should be below two hundred degrees. The binary cycle itself consists of using two types of water - hot and moderate. Both streams are passed through a heat exchanger. The hotter liquid evaporates the colder one, and the vapors formed as a result of this process drive the turbines.

Figure 4. Schematic of a geothermal power plant with a binary cycle.

As for our country, geothermal energy ranks first in terms of potential possibilities for its use due to the unique landscape and natural conditions. Found reserves of geothermal waters with temperatures from 40 to 200 ° C and a depth of up to 3500 m on its territory can provide approximately 14 million m3 of hot water per day. Large reserves of underground thermal waters are located in Dagestan, North Ossetia, Checheno-Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Transcaucasia, Stavropol and Krasnodar territories, Kazakhstan, Kamchatka and a number of other regions of Russia. For example, in Dagestan, thermal waters have been used for heat supply for a long time.

The first geothermal power plant was built in 1966 at the Pauzhetsky field on the Kamchatka Peninsula to supply electricity to surrounding villages and fish processing plants, thereby promoting local development. Local geothermal system can provide energy to power plants with a capacity of up to 250-350 MW. But this potential is only used by a quarter.

The territory of the Kuril Islands has a unique and at the same time complex landscape. Power supply to the cities located there comes with great difficulties: the need to deliver means of subsistence to the islands by sea or air, which is quite expensive and takes a lot of time. Geothermal resources of the islands this moment allow you to receive 230 MW of electricity, which can meet all the region’s needs for energy, heat, and hot water supply.

On the island of Iturup, resources of a two-phase geothermal coolant have been found, the power of which is sufficient to meet the energy needs of the entire island. On the southern island of Kunashir there is a 2.6 MW GeoPP, which is used to generate electricity and heat supply to the city of Yuzhno-Kurilsk. It is planned to build several more GeoPPs with a total capacity of 12-17 MW.

The most promising regions for the use of geothermal sources in Russia are the south of Russia and Far East. The Caucasus, Stavropol, and Krasnodar Territories have enormous potential for geothermal energy.

The use of geothermal waters in the central part of Russia requires high costs due to the deep occurrence of thermal waters.

In the Kaliningrad region, there are plans to implement a pilot project for geothermal heat and electricity supply to the city of Svetly based on a binary GeoPP with a capacity of 4 MW.

Geothermal energy in Russia is focused both on the construction of large facilities and on the use of geothermal energy for individual homes, schools, hospitals, private shops and other facilities using geothermal circulation systems.

In the Stavropol Territory, at the Kayasulinskoye field, the construction of an expensive experimental Stavropol Geothermal Power Plant with a capacity of 3 MW was started and suspended.

In 1999, the Verkhne-Mutnovskaya GeoPP was put into operation ( figure 5).

Figure 5. Verkhne-Mutnovskaya GeoPP

It has a capacity of 12 MW (3x4 MW) and is a pilot stage of the Mutnovskaya GeoPP with a design capacity of 200 MW, created to supply power to the industrial region of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsk.

But despite the great advantages in this direction, there are also disadvantages:

1. The main one is the need to pump waste water back into the underground aquifer. Thermal waters contain large amounts of salts of various toxic metals (boron, lead, zinc, cadmium, arsenic) and chemical compounds (ammonia, phenols), which makes it impossible to discharge these waters into natural water systems located on the surface.

2. Sometimes an operating geothermal power plant may stop working as a result of natural changes in the earth's crust.

3. Finding a suitable location for the construction of a geothermal power plant and obtaining permission from local authorities and the consent of residents for its construction can be problematic.

4. The construction of a GeoPP may negatively affect land stability in the surrounding region.

Most of these shortcomings are minor and completely solvable.

In today's world, people do not think about the consequences of their decisions. After all, what will they do if they run out of oil, gas and coal? People are used to living in comfort. They won’t be able to heat their houses with wood for a long time, because a large population will need a huge amount of wood, which will naturally lead to large-scale deforestation and leave the world without oxygen. Therefore, in order to prevent this from happening, it is necessary to use the resources available to us sparingly, but with maximum efficiency. Just one way to solve this problem is the development of geothermal energy. Of course, it has its pros and cons, but its development will greatly facilitate the continued existence of humanity and will play a big role in its further development.

Now this direction is not very popular, because the oil and gas industry dominates the world and large companies are in no hurry to invest in the development of a much-needed industry. Therefore, for the further progress of geothermal energy, investments and government support are necessary, without which it is simply impossible to implement anything on a national scale. The introduction of geothermal energy into the country's energy balance will allow:

1. increase energy security, on the other hand, reduce the harmful impact on the environment compared to traditional sources.

2. develop the economy, because the liberated cash it will be possible to invest in other industries, social development states, etc.

In the last decade, the use of non-traditional renewable energy sources has experienced a real boom in the world. The scale of use of these sources has increased several times. It is capable of radically and on the most economic basis solving the problem of energy supply to these areas, which use expensive imported fuel and are on the verge of an energy crisis, improve the social situation of the population of these areas, etc. This is exactly what we are seeing in countries Western Europe(Germany, France, Great Britain), Northern Europe(Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Denmark). This is explained by the fact that they have high economic development and are very dependent on fossil resources, and therefore the heads of these states, together with business, are trying to minimize this dependence. In particular, the development of geothermal energy in the Northern European countries is favored by the presence of a large number of geysers and volcanoes. It’s not for nothing that Iceland is called the country of volcanoes and geysers.

Now humanity is beginning to understand the importance of this industry and is trying to develop it as much as possible. The use of a wide range of diverse technologies makes it possible to reduce energy consumption by 40-60% and at the same time ensure real economic development. And the remaining needs for electricity and heat can be met through more efficient production, through restoration, through combining the production of thermal and electrical energy, as well as through the use of renewable resources, which makes it possible to abandon certain types of power plants and reduce emissions carbon dioxide by about 80%.

Bibliography:

1.Baeva A.G., Moskvicheva V.N. Geothermal energy: problems, resources, use: ed. M.: SO AN USSR, Institute of Thermophysics, 1979. - 350 p.

2.Berman E., Mavritsky B.F. Geothermal energy: ed. M.: Mir, 1978 - 416 pp.

3.Geothermal energy. [Electronic resource] - Access mode - URL: http://ustoj.com/Energy_5.htm(access date 08/29/2013).

4. Geothermal energy in Russia. [Electronic resource] - Access mode - URL: http://www.gisee.ru/articles/geothermic-energy/24511/(date of access: 09/07/2013).

5. Dvorov I.M. Deep heat of the Earth: ed. M.: Nauka, 1972. - 208 p.

6.Energy. Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia. [Electronic resource] - Access mode - URL: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energy(date of access: 09/07/2013).

It is estimated that at a depth of up to 5 km in the bowels of the Earth, the amount of concentrated heat is many times greater than the energy contained in all types of fossil energy resources. In some regions, for example, Kamchatka and Iceland, hot waters pour out to the surface in the form of geysers. It has now been proven that geothermal energy, obtained by using the natural heat of the earth’s interior, is the most promising and environmentally safe among renewable types of energy.

Currently, in many countries of the world (USA, Russia, Iceland, etc.) the heat of hot springs is used to generate electricity and heat buildings, heat greenhouses and greenhouses. Since 1930, the capital of Iceland, Reykjavik, has been supplied with heat mainly from geothermal heat. It is important to emphasize that geothermal power plants (GeoTES) in layout, equipment, and operation differ little from traditional thermal power plants.

Shallow thermal waters with a temperature of 50-100°C are mainly used. Thus, a well with a daily flow rate of 1500 m 3 of thermal water (60°C) supplies the hot water needs of a village with a population of 14 thousand inhabitants. IN northern latitudes underground thermal waters are used for heating homes, for medicinal purposes, and for growing vegetables and even fruits in special greenhouses.

In artificial geothermal sources, liquid or gas is used as a working fluid, which circulates through drilled wells in the thickness of rocks having high temperatures.

For example, in the USA, experiments are being carried out on the injection of cold water into wells drilled to a depth of 4 km into a zone of hot, but fractured and therefore waterless rocks. Approximately 3/5 of the pumped water through other wells reaches the surface, but in the form of hot steam. This steam can not only generate electricity by driving turbines, but can also be used for central heating. Similar experiments are being carried out in other countries.

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Production and consumption waste is the remains of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, other items or products generated in the process of production and consumption, as well as products

Waste treatment
Waste management is an activity during which waste is generated, as well as activities for the collection, use, neutralization, transportation, and disposal of waste.

Standards for waste generation and limits on their disposal
The essence of this type of environmental support for an enterprise’s activities is: · establishing waste generation standards for an operating enterprise, based on an analysis of technology

Collection, storage and transportation of waste
Proper organization of waste collection, storage and transportation makes a great contribution to the improvement of the environment. In the USA, where the rate of accumulation of, for example, municipal solid waste (MSW) is 2-3 times higher than in

Landfills for disposal of solid household waste
The Law “On Industrial and Consumption Waste” established requirements for waste disposal sites. Creation of such facilities - specially equipped structures (landfills, sludge storage facilities, dumps

Treatment of toxic industrial waste
The main directions for the treatment of solid industrial waste (ISW) are: · burial in landfills and landfills; · processing of specific solid waste