Forms of negative human impact on the environment. Human influence on nature, negative impact

28.11.2019

Introduction

1. Interaction between society and nature at different stages of human development

1.1 Characteristics of natural systems

1.2 Types of natural systems

1.3 Laws of stability of natural systems

2. Human impact on the natural environment

2.1 Technological forms of human impact on the biosphere

2.2 Environmental forms of human impact on the biosphere

2.3 Strategies for improving natural systems

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

With the current state of technical armament of mankind, the level of development of production relations and productive forces in the world community, the growth of the world's population, increasing urbanization, the spread of the stereotype of a consumer society - the scale of the withdrawal of natural resources, the degree of impact and pollution of the surrounding world have become dangerous for mankind itself.

Any construction, all the more so, should be reliable and safe for humans, but this is rarely achievable for nature: the impossibility of eliminating the consequences of construction, its absolute stability requires significant costs for adaptation from nature, some of them affect many components of the biota and are far from harmless to person.

No construction as a result of technogenesis can be essential by definition, but its negative consequences can be significantly reduced. The ideal of a modern builder and architect is to create a structure adequate to the natural environment, i.e. existing inside biogenic cycles is absolutely adequate to them, in other words, environmentally friendly. From the very beginning of his existence, man has influenced nature. At the first stages, man interacted with the natural environment as an ordinary biological species, as an animal, and as a whole was a part of the ecosystem as its main element.

Of greatest importance is the human influence on renewable resources (referred to as exhaustible). This group includes all forms of living and bio-inert matter: soils, vegetation, fauna, microorganisms, etc. The set of renewable resources is nothing more than the global ecosystem of the Earth (or gene pool); it exists on the basis of fundamental laws of ecology, in order for the exploitation of biological resources to be reasonable and contribute to the real progress of the social, cultural and scientific-technical life of mankind, it is necessary to clearly understand the mechanisms of the influence of various aspects of human activity on natural systems, to know the regularities of the reaction of biological objects to anthropogenic impacts and, on this basis, move to the management of ecosystems in order to maintain their sustainability and productivity.

Relevance.Each of us, each of those who consider themselves a particle of world humanity, must know what impact human activity has on the world around us and feel a share of responsibility for certain actions. It is a person who causes his own fears about nature, like a house that provides food, warmth and other conditions for his normal life. Human activity is a very aggressive and actively destructive (transformative) force on our planet.

Objectgiven term paper is the human influence on the natural environment.

Subjectcoursework are natural systems.

The purposeof this course work is:

study the human impact on the environment and the consequences of human impact on the environment.

This goal implies consideration of the following tasks:

show the real threat of human impact on the environment;

give examples of human influence on the surrounding nature;

consider improvement strategies natural environment,

1. Interaction between society and nature at different stages of human development

1.1 Characteristics of natural systems

The interaction of man and nature. The interaction between man and nature is more than 3.5 million years old. The starting point of the relationship between man and nature can be considered the beginning of the formation of human society. For such a long time, the nature of the relationship between man and nature has changed greatly. At first, the natural factor played a decisive role in these relationships, and the dependence of the most ancient people on nature was the greatest. The earliest people (arhanthropus) were essentially one of the biological components of natural ecosystems. But, gradually developing, using your mental and physical abilities and improving your material culture, the earliest people more and more altered the nature around them.

A new system of connections has emerged between man and the environment, carried out with the help of technical devices.

It was the increasing role of hunting in the life of ancient people that weakened their dependence on nature, and opened up new opportunities for living in new conditions. As a result, the boundaries of their residence are gradually expanding. This event is one of the most important in the history of the interaction between man and nature: man seems to emerge from the usual purely biological niche.

Tools of labor and artificially produced fire have expanded the possibilities for the use of natural resources. The active use of tools has distinguished man from the rest of the biological world. In the future, this contributed to the formation of a primitive appropriating economy.

It is possible that more than a hundred thousand years ago, man could have a noticeable influence on the flora and fauna. The Neanderthal influenced mainly the species composition and number of animals. He did not cause major transformations, but he already appreciated the benefits of tools and work skills. He was aware of his superiority over all other animals, which he successfully hunted, but he hardly tried to comprehend natural phenomena and find explanations for them. He remained a natural part of the environment - both spiritually and materially.

The first of the known evidences of negative human impacts on nature, caused, according to modern terminology, by a predatory attitude towards natural resources, belongs to the era of the late Paleolithic. During the excavation, the remains of animals killed in the hunt (bison, mammoths) are found in such an amount that clearly exceeded the needs of the tribe.

The transition of a person from appropriating to a producing economy. In a historically short period of time, the Cro-Magnons came to replace the Neanderthals. The emergence of Homo sapiens (“Homo sapiens) has become a new milestone, marking the onset of unusual rearrangements in the life of the biosphere. The interaction of material, spiritual and environmental factors led to a radical change in the exploitation of natural resources - the transition from appropriating to producing economy.

The prerequisites for this transition were: the development of technical adaptations, the existing system of knowledge and beliefs, including the issues of not only the use of nature, but also concern for the state of its resources. With a high technical level, a variety of tools for hunting and gathering, a situation has been created that facilitates the transition to agriculture and animal husbandry.

The transition of mankind from gathering to agriculture and animal husbandry was gradual and long. At first, the share of cultivated plants and animals in human household use was small.

People continued to hunt and gather. In the presence of vast undeveloped territories, the Neolithic communities had a wide field of activity. They moved from one developed area to another, after a dozen other years they often returned to the place of initial processing. However, the demographic environment has changed over time. More and more communities appeared, good lands became less and less, the destruction of forests began to go faster than self-restoration.

VI Vernadsky said beautifully about the great importance of agriculture in the history of mankind and the biosphere: “The discovery of agriculture ... decided the whole future of mankind. By changing the life of autotrophic living organisms on the earth's surface in this way, man thereby created such a lever for his activity, the consequences of which in the history of the planet were incalculable ”.

The emergence of a fundamentally new type of economy, which changed the relationship of man with the environment and the structure of society, according to scientists, coincides in time with the beginning of the historical period - the Neolithic, therefore, it should be considered a revolutionary upheaval - the "Neolithic revolution".

For the onset of the "Neolithic revolution", man had to deplete the reserves of game and useful plants so that as a result there was an urgent need for purposeful actions aimed at increasing the amount of food.

General population growth and increased needs led to an accelerated spread of agricultural landscapes.

The natural ecological situation on the planet as a whole has deteriorated, since some species of large mammals have disappeared, and desertification has begun in large areas. Since that time, a more perfect artificial system of nature management becomes necessary. Irrigation facilities and irrigated agriculture made it possible to organize agriculture and animal husbandry in areas with unfavorable natural conditions.

Man, creating a favorable environment for himself, has achieved success not only in obtaining food, but also in the intellectual sphere, in the development of personality. New forms of social structure took shape: large permanent settlements, cities.

A number of events have taken place in the history of mankind, which later acquired global significance and not only for people, but also for the surrounding nature. The first such event can be considered the development of fire. As a result, this caused a number of serious environmental consequences in different geographic areas Earth.

Another event of global significance was the change in the type of economy. From an appropriating economic structure, people moved to a producing one, helping to increase the biological resources necessary for nutrition.

The more intensive the exploitation of natural resources became, the faster nature was depleted, and special measures were required to protect it. At first, these were bans on the destruction of certain species of animals and plants, as well as certain elements of landscapes (springs, lakes, rivers). These prohibitions were based on fantasy and religious beliefs. Without a scientific basis, these measures could not give a significant result and had a local significance. Rapid increase in impact economic activity man to its nature happened after the industrial revolution, i.e. in the transition from craft and manufacture to the machine industry. This was the initial period of capitalism, when the predatory forms of the use of natural resources became ubiquitous.

The natural system, on the one hand, has a multifactorial effect on the life of people and social production, on the other hand, it is an integral system. The system of nature is a system that represents a multitude of homogeneous or heterogeneous entities that are in strong relationships, forming a kind of integrity, or a self-developing and self-regulating ordered material and energy complex that exists as a single whole, composed of natural structures and formations grouped into ecological or environment-forming components at higher levels of hierarchical organization.

At the present stage of development, the forms of interaction between society and nature have become more complicated, therefore a comprehensive assessment of geosystems is one of the main tasks in solving issues of rational nature management and nature protection. According to V.V.Dokuchaev, integral geosystems should be subject to comprehensive assessment and accounting. The social significance of this doctrine has increased in the era of industrialization and the scientific and technological revolution.

Geosystems constitute the living environment of mankind, have resource and ecological potential and provide both most of the needs of people and the necessary energy and raw materials for the development of social production. Consequently, geosystems are environmental management environments.

The state of geosystems determines the reproduction of the vital resources of mankind, such as free oxygen, soil fertility, water, and biomass. Knowledge of geosystems at various levels should be based on a scientifically grounded attitude of society to the natural environment. Natural systems (geosystems, ecosystems) are interconnected both in space and in time, that is, their development occurs in conjunction.

The concept of a geosystem covers the entire hierarchical range of natural geographic entities - from the geographic envelope to its elementary structural subdivisions - facies.

The presence of various levels of the structure and organization of geosystems allows you to choose as the object of research and assessment the rank that best meets the solution of a specific problem. The global geosystem is formed by the geographic shell of the Earth (for example, continents), local systems are represented in small territories.

Geosystems of the regional level are represented by large territories with complex structure and structure of space. Within geosystems, natural-spatial relationships are formed due to changes in matter and energy conversion, both in the vertical and horizontal directions. On the basis of geosystem concepts, a kind of landscape approach has been developed, which is used in planning and territorial regulation of nature management.

1.2 Types of natural systems

System (Greek systema - whole, made up of parts) is a set of elements that are in connections and relationships with each other, forming a certain integrity, unity.

The main thing that determines the system is the relationship and interaction of parts within the whole. If such an interaction exists, then it is permissible to speak of a system, although the degree of interaction of its parts may be different.

You should also pay attention to the fact that each separate object, object or phenomenon can be considered as a certain integrity, consisting of parts, and investigated as a system.

The whole variety of material systems is reduced to three main types:

Systems of inanimate nature;

Wildlife systems;

Social systems.

In addition, the bioinert system is distinguished - it is a natural system created by the dynamic relationship of organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment (for example, biogeocenosis, ecosystem) and biological systems.

Biological systems are dynamically self-regulating and, as a rule, self-developing and self-reproducing biological formations of varying complexity (from a macromolecule to a set of living organisms at the same time), possessing, on the one hand, the property of integrity, on the other hand, subordination in the structure of structural and functional hierarchical levels of organization. It's always open systems, the condition for the existence of which is the internally controlled exchange of matter with the environment and the passage of an energy flow external to them.

By volume and number component parts systems are divided into simple and complex.

Systems are considered simple if they include a small number of variables, and therefore the relationship between the elements of the system lends itself to mathematical processing and the derivation of universal laws.

Complex systems consist of a large number of variables, hence, a large number of connections between them. The larger it is, the more difficult it is to describe the patterns of functioning of a given object (system).

Difficulties in studying such systems are also due to the fact that the more complex a system is, the more so-called emergent properties it has, that is, properties that its parts do not have and which are a consequence of their interaction and the integrity of the system. Such complex systems are studied, for example, meteorology - the science of climatic processes.

Due to the complexity of the systems that this science studies. The processes of weather formation remain poorly understood and, hence, the problematic nature of not only long-term, but also short-term forecasts of meteorological conditions.

Complex systems include all biological systems, including all structural levels of their organization from cell to population.

1.3 Laws of stability of natural systems

The stability of a natural system is, first of all, the ability of the system to remain relatively unchanged for a certain period in spite of external and internal disturbances.

These patterns of existence of natural systems are most clearly characterized by the law of optimality and the law of internal dynamic development.

The law of optimality says that with the greatest efficiency any natural system functions within certain space-time limits, or no system can contract and expand indefinitely.

For example, a mammal cannot be smaller and larger than the size at which it is able to give birth to live young and feed them with its milk. No integral organism is able to exceed the critical dimensions that ensure the maintenance of its energy.

The law of internal dynamic equilibrium assumes that matter, energy, information and dynamic qualities of individual natural systems and their hierarchy are so interconnected that any change in one of them, of these indicators, causes concomitant functional and structural quantitative and qualitative changes that preserve the total amount of material-energy , informational and dynamic qualities of the systems where these changes occur, or in their hierarchy.

According to this law, in the practical sphere, any local transformation of nature evokes responses in the global totality of the biosphere and in its largest subdivisions, leading to a relative immutability of the ecological and economic potential (according to the Grishkin caftan rule), the increase of which is possible only through a significant increase in energy investments.

2. Human impact on the natural environment

2.1 Technological forms of human impact on the biosphere

Biosphere pollution. Spilled kind of pollution of the atmosphere, soil and hydrosphere is determined by the release of industrial, household and agricultural waste containing substances that do not have natural destructors and have a toxic effect on living organisms.

The industrial impact on the atmosphere includes the use of its original gas composition - a decrease in oxygen content and a significant increase in carbon dioxide (CO2). Along with this, in recent years, there has been a progressive pollution of it with dust and gaseous substances of industrial emissions. In particular, acidic emissions and sometimes toxic gases are very dangerous. Dust pollution of the atmosphere, in addition to direct pathological effects on the respiratory organs of humans and animals, reduce the permeability of the atmosphere to solar radiation, and also participate in the "greenhouse effect".

Human impact is all types of activities of people and objects created by them, causing certain changes in natural systems. It includes the action of technical means, engineering structures, technology (i.e. methods) of production, the nature of the use of the territory. Human exposure can be intentional or unintentional. In the first case, it is considered as a purposeful and conscious action that is carried out in the process of material production in order to satisfy certain needs of society (for example, the construction of a hydroelectric power station for the needs of energy, the construction of a reservoir for water supply and irrigation, deforestation for timber, etc.). NS.). Deliberate impacts are an object of the economy, they are planned and financed in advance.

Unintentional exposure is a side effect of intentional exposure. Thus, the construction of a reservoir often leads to an increase in the level of groundwater and flooding, coastal abrasion, deterioration of water quality and other "unplanned" consequences. Side effects they do not always appear immediately, they are often negative, therefore their study and analysis is one of the most important tasks of geography and ecology.

Human industrial activity also leads to soil pollution. The main components of such pollution are industrial and domestic waste, waste from the construction of ash from thermal power plants, waste rock emissions in mining sites, etc. These pollution not only hide the fertile soil layer, but also contain a number of chemical elements, which in large quantities are toxic to plants and microorganisms: sulfur, copper, zinc, arsenic, aluminum, fluorine, etc.

During geological exploration, the components of the drilling fluids used for drilling (caustic soda, sodium chloride), as well as diesel fuel, bitumen, clog soils and lead to their colonization. In most cases, this leads to local death of vegetation.

One of the most acute problems of our time has become freshwater pollution. Population growth and the progressive development of various industries lead to an increasing scale of pollution of rivers, lakes and other continental water bodies with domestic and industrial wastewater, toxic to humans and many other living organisms. In particular, waste from the pulp and paper industry is very destructive. In reservoirs receiving wastewater from such an enterprise, almost the entire population of invertebrates and fish perishes.

Among industrial emissions, a particular danger for the living population of water bodies is represented by oil products, acids, salts and toxicants, which make significant changes in the degree of salinity of water bodies, oxygen regime and other parameters of the aquatic environment. In many water bodies, pollution from industrial and agricultural waste leads to the replacement of the main commercial fish less valuable. For example, whitefish, salmon and sturgeon fish find themselves in particularly unfavorable conditions and are gradually being replaced by carp and perch fish (roach, bream, perch, ruff).

Pollution of fresh water bodies is especially dangerous against the background of a general shortage of fresh water. Already, half of humanity is experiencing \ "water starvation \", and this also applies to highly developed countries.

Fight c various forms pollution of the biosphere is a problem that is only conditionally attributed to environmental. The development of various kinds of treatment facilities is a purely technical and largely solved task, although these facilities are not always used to the proper extent. Therefore, the legal aspect of the problem is also important - compliance with legislation, limiting the release of industrial waste into the environment.

Exploitation of biological resources. The catastrophic results of human influence on nature were first perceived through a list of plant and animal species exterminated by humans. The scale of this influence is impressive: in historical time alone, the disappearance of more than 100 species of large mammals and about the same number of species and subspecies of birds have been recorded. For example, Steller's cow (Pacific coast), wingless auk (Iceland, the last specimen died in 1844).

The main reasons for the destruction of birds and mammals are excessive hunting and pest control. Under these forms of impact, the extinction of species proceeded mainly through the disruption of the mechanisms of reproduction of populations due to a sharp decrease in their number and density of allotment.

However, no less number of species disappeared from the face of the Earth for purely ecological reasons, such as a radical change in the biotopes inherent in the species, disruption of biocenotic relations in the form of the appearance of new predators, pathogens, etc.

The problem of overexploitation is no less significant in the aquatic environment. The extreme expression of overhunting is the disappearance of a species and its replacement with less valuable to humans. For example, in the North Pacific Ocean, sea bass was replaced by pollock, which in last years confidently takes the first place in the world fish industry.

No less destructive was human activity in relation to vegetation. For a long time, in all countries of the world there was an immoderate deforestation. As a result, many countries (for example, Greece) practically lost their forests, since its restoration did not take place due to the activities of goats and other domestic animals. In Russia from the end of the XVII century. Until 1914, the forest cover decreased from 51% to ЗЗ%. At present, the center of predatory deforestation has moved to Central America, Indonesia and some other countries still rich in undisturbed forests.

The fight against the harmful consequences of overexploitation of ecological resources is an ecological task. It provides for the study of the parameters of populations of exploited species and the development on this basis of norms for the impact of fishing that do not violate, but, on the contrary, stimulate reproduction on a scale that fully compensates for the level of commercial removal.

Nature protection cannot be limited only by \ "prohibitive \" measures (partial or complete prohibition of hunting or other forms of exploitation of specific resources, the creation of a network of wildlife sanctuaries, reserves, etc.). The prohibition of hunting, the elimination of the activity of predators and other methods of protecting animals sometimes may not increase, but decrease the number of populations. In the populations of animals and birds, which are not hunted for a long time, the number of old, sick and weakened individuals is increasing. To enhance the viability of the population of many species of ungulates, it is necessary to selectively shoot animals or allow the existence of a certain number of predators, destroying sick and weak animals from the herd first of all. Otherwise, signs of degeneration appear, and the number of protected animals decreases.

To preserve natural resources, it is necessary not to exclude human intervention in the affairs of nature, it is reasonable, to direct the activity so that it ensures the restoration and increase of natural resources.

The use should be carried out taking into account the interconnection of natural complexes, which ensures the restoration and increase of the used resources. In this case, the need for prohibitions on natural resource use will disappear.

2.2 Environmental forms of human impact on the biosphere

The forms of the technological impact of mankind on natural systems considered above are the most important problem of the modern ecological crisis. Direct forms of negative impact on nature must be fought, especially since their elimination is in the power of man.

But along with direct influences, humanity in all forms of its activity inevitably and irreparably introduces indirect changes in the composition and conditions of existence natural communities... the development of transport and communications, the enormous scale of hydro-construction and land reclamation, changes in landscapes in connection with the creation of cities and the introduction of industrial methods of agriculture - all this, regardless of the wishes of a person, radically changes the conditions for the existence of the surrounding ecosystems and individual species.

Influence of transport. It is known that with the development of transport, the migration of animals outside their natural range increases sharply.

Plants and animals \ "travel \" together with cargo, attaching themselves to the bottoms of ships, getting into railway wagons, ship holds, aircraft saloons. Rats, house mice, barn pests, weed seeds, etc. are delivered along with the goods.

The Thames began to find invertebrates characteristic of the Indian Ocean. In the vicinity of Odessa, there are established settlements of termites brought by sea vessels from the places of their natural distribution. In the 1930s, it was estimated that 490 species of animals were brought to the large port of Hamburg in 3 years, including 4 species of lizards, 7 species of snakes, 2 - amphibians, 22 - molluscs, the rest - insects and arachnids. Mostly in this way are transported plant seeds, insects and invertebrates (hydrobionts attached to the bottoms of ships, arthropods, etc.); in smaller quantities, but quite regularly, vertebrates, mainly amphibians and reptiles, as well as mammals, and less often birds, are imported.

With favorable feed and natural conditions rooting of a species is possible if the number of introduced species is sufficient to form breeding groups and if there are no sufficiently powerful competitors and predators in the local biocenosis.

If these conditions are met, after some time, a \ "population explosion \" of the introduced species is often observed, which is expressed in a sharp increase in the number and is often accompanied by adverse effects on certain conditions of human life. For example, in 1884, at a cotton exhibition in New Orleans (USA), water hyacinth was used as an ornamental plant. Many visitors took cuttings and planted them in local water bodies. The enormous reproductive potential of this species, which reproduces both seeds and vegetatively, has led to a real disaster. It turned out that the offshoot of only one specimen is capable of covering up to 4 thousand m2 of the water surface with a dense carpet for 10 months. Some rivers in the southern states of the United States have stopped shipping. The species began to spread intensively, first penetrating into Mexico, and by the beginning of the 20th century crossed the ocean and populated the water bodies of southern Asia, Central Africa, penetrated Madagascar, and finally came to Australia.

In addition to interfering with navigation, a continuous carpet of water hyacinths, preventing the penetration of oxygen from the atmosphere into the water, causes its deficiency in the water column and the death of fish and other aquatic animals. Quite a lot of examples of this kind are known. But what has already been said gives an idea of the possibility of dangerous consequences of the unintended introduction of alien species, which often cannot be prevented even by the most stringent quarantine measures - recall, for example, the \ "victorious march \" of the Colorado potato beetle across Europe, which began in 1920 in France and continuing now on the territory of our country. The dispersal of this species, which was originally widespread in the mountains of North America, was associated with the introduction of potatoes into the cultivation and its wide distribution almost throughout the world.

Similar patterns are often manifested in the directed acclimatization of species that are valuable to humans. A spontaneous, ecologically ill-conceived introduction of a species into new conditions may end in failure with unfavorable environmental factors, or with an insufficient number of the initial colonizing group. In the case of a favorable combination of \ "starting \" conditions, artificial acclimatization most often leads after a while to a sharp increase in the number of introduced species, which does not always corresponds to the original plans, or to a change in species characteristics.

For example, the invasion of an alien species of perch into the Panama Canal system in 1965 led to the devouring of local small fish populations. As a result, outbreaks of water bloom and mass development of zooplanktop appeared, and the likelihood of epidemic outbreaks of malaria also increased. Introduced pike perch displaced perch in Lake Balkhash. An example of an introduction that was not accompanied by the displacement of native species was the introduction of polychaetes into the Caspian Sea. Having multiplied in large numbers, this species formed a stable food base for valuable commercial fish. At the end of the past - at the beginning of our century, the handsome and pride of the Siberian taiga, the sable, was almost completely exterminated. With the development of international trade, the demand for \ "Russian sable \" was increasing, the sable was mined without restriction and its number was sharply reduced.

The first in Russia was created to preserve the sable Barguzinsky reserve, and with the establishment of Soviet power, a complete ban on hunting was imposed on the sable, the remaining stocks of the animal were declared a specially protected state fund.

By 1940, the Barguzinsky Reserve restored the sable population throughout the Barguzinsky mountain range. Then, first, the capture and resettlement of the animal in the places of its past distribution. Currently, the sable lives again throughout the territory where it was found in past centuries - in the entire zone of Siberia and the Far East, Magadan, Kamchatka regions and on Sakhalin. The introduction of East Siberian dark sables in the habitat of other races had a beneficial effect on the improvement of the fur qualities of the animals of local populations. predominant local sables.

Hydraulic engineering. Hydraulic structures play a significant role in changing the composition and biotic relationships in aquatic communities. It is known that the discovery of the Suez Canal in 1869 led to the appearance in the Mediterranean Sea of a number of species of aquatic organisms from the Red Sea.

The negative impact of hydroelectric dams on the reproduction of fish stocks is known due to the blockage of spawning routes; special channels for the passage of fish are being built, it is far from everywhere, and not all fish use them effectively. Reservoirs created by dams also often undermine fish stocks by flooding former spawning grounds.

Changing landscapes. In modern conditions, anthropogenic changes in landscapes are the most powerful and constant factor influencing the species composition, structure and ecological relationships in ecosystems:

1. Anthropogenic changes lead to a depletion of the species composition and simplification of biocenotic relations in the ecosystem, this reduces the resistance of ecosystems to external influences and leads to a disturbance in the balance of intrasystem relationships. It is known that gray voles, before deforestation and plowing of vacated lands for agriculture, live in floodplains, forest glades, etc., without giving outbreaks of high numbers. The introduction of vast fields of cereal crops on the site of former forests opened up the possibility of a sharp increase in the number of these rodents.

2. The introduction of mosaic elements into the original landscape type associated with human activity increases biological diversity and complicates relations in the biocenosis; this increases the stability of this type of anthropogenic biocenoses.

When creating forest monocultures (convenient for mechanized processing and operation), complex edges are specially designed, creating conditions for the formation of a stable complex of birds and insects, limiting the possibility of pest outbreaks.

3. Anthropogenic (\ "cultural \") landscapes always in some way bear the features inherent in any natural. This determines their suitability, and even attractiveness for organisms of certain life forms. This is the basis for the formation of biotic complexes of anthropogenic ecosystems. In this regard, even small, at first glance, changes in the terrain can be important. It has been traced, for example, that heaps of stones removed from the fields during processing attract snakes, increasing their number near agricultural land.

Taken together, these properties of anthropogenically modified landscapes determine the response of living organisms to new conditions and underlie anthropogenic changes in ecosystems transformed by humans.

As part of ecosystems undergoing anthropogenic impact, there are always species that receive in the modified landscapes sufficient opportunities to implement the ecological requirements for the environment, in some cases - even certain advantages.

Insects and mites have become practically synanthropic, which we now refer to as granary pests inhabiting granaries. Initially, these species lived in the holes of rodents and fed on the remains of their food and supplies. The huge accumulations of grain created by man are quite consistent with this ecological form - the species have gradually adapted to living in these favorable conditions.

The process of synanthropization is gradual and quite lengthy. In the late 70s - early 80s in Great Britain, Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, regular feeding of tundra swans in sugar beet fields was recorded, in some cases - together with geese. This type of feeding provided the swans with the opportunity to overwinter, which had not been observed before. There are many examples of the "gravitation" of the series of species to the areas of human activity. This phenomenon is especially pronounced where the ideas of nature conservation and humane treatment of animals have successfully taken root in the minds of the population. The formation of the fauna of cities is based on the same ecological foundations. Features of urban architecture open up wide opportunities for the settlement of many species of birds and other animals. Some of them are directly connected with stone structures with many niches, cracks, ledges, cornices (doves and swifts). other species inhabit city parks, boulevards and other green areas of the city (squirrels, blackbirds, finches, etc.) or artificial reservoirs (ducks). Some of the species are associated with city dumps (rooks, crows, jackdaws, pigeons). Underground communications are widely used by rodents.

2.3 Strategies for improving natural systems

Preventing pollution is easier than eliminating its effects.

In industry, for this purpose, wastewater treatment systems, circulating water supply, gas recovery units are used, special filters are installed on the exhaust pipes of cars. The transition to new, "cleaner" energy sources also helps to reduce environmental pollution.

Rational management of natural resources requires not only in-depth knowledge of the laws and mechanisms of the functioning of ecological systems, but also the purposeful formation of the moral foundation of society, people's consciousness of their unity with nature, the need to restructure the system of social production and consumption.

Rational approaches to the extraction and processing of natural mineral resources include:

complete and comprehensive extraction of all useful components from the deposit;

reclamation (restoration) of land after the use of deposits;

economical and waste-free use of raw materials in production;

deep cleaning and technological use of production waste;

reuse of materials after products are out of use;

application of energy-saving technologies.

The basis of human well-being in the future is the preservation of natural diversity. The preservation of natural communities is important not only for material well-being, but also for a full-fledged human existence.

At present, it is clear that in order to preserve species diversity, it is necessary to preserve undisturbed areas, which must be significant in area, otherwise, many species are threatened with extinction on small protected "islets". Any economic activity is prohibited on the territory of the reserves; special protective zones have been created around.

Extreme exploitation, pollution, and often simply barbaric destruction of natural communities, lead to a sharp decrease in the diversity of living things. The extinction of animals could be the largest in the history of our planet. More species of birds and mammals have disappeared from the face of the Earth over the past 300 years than in the previous 10,000 years.

It should be remembered that the main damage to diversity does not lie in their death due to direct persecution and destruction, but in the fact that in connection with the development of new areas for agricultural production, the development of industry and environmental pollution, the areas of many natural ecosystems are disrupted. This so-called "indirect impact" leads to the extinction of tens and hundreds of species of animals and plants, many of which were not known and will never be described by science. The process of extinction, for example, of animals, has significantly accelerated due to the destruction of tropical forests.

Over the past 200 years, their area has almost halved and continues to decline at a rate of 15-20 hectares per minute. The steppes in Eurasia and the prairies in the United States have almost completely disappeared. The tundra communities are also being intensively destroyed. Coral reefs and other marine communities are threatened in many areas.

Humanity must learn to "live within its means", use Natural resources without undermining them, finance programs aimed at preventing the catastrophic consequences of their own activities.

These critical programs include restraining population growth; development of new industrial technologies to avoid pollution, search for new, "clean" energy sources; an increase in food production without an increase in acreage.

The most destructive of the impacts of human activities on communities is the release of pollutants. A pollutant is any substance that enters the atmosphere, soil or natural waters and disrupting the biological, sometimes physical or chemical processes going on there.

Radioactive radiation and heat are often referred to as contaminants. As a result of human activity, carbon dioxide CO2 and carbon monoxide CO, sulfur dioxide SO2, methane CH4, nitrogen oxides NO2, NO, N2O enter the atmosphere. Their main sources of income are the burning of fossil fuels, forest burning and industrial emissions. When aerosols are used, chlorofluorocarbons are released into the atmosphere; as a result of transport operations, hydrocarbons (benzopyrene, etc.) are released.

Conclusion

The problems of environmental hazard are not indifferent to the population of Russia. Public organizations and associations are being created everywhere, whose activities are aimed at identifying problems of environmental safety, environmental protection and human health; to disseminate reliable information about the state of the natural environment and the health of the population of the Russian Federation; to conduct public environmental expertise and environmental risk assessment; protection of the rights and interests of citizens, public control over the observance of legislation in the field of environmental management. The government is required to make decisions for the optimal use of natural resources. These organizations have their own printed editions, newspapers ("Salvation", "Green World", "Berengia", etc.), relations with international organizations, foundations that work in the field of protection the environment However, the main and most comprehensive universal instrument is called upon to be the state, which should become the head of civil and public organizations in protecting each individual, all social groups, and society as a whole. These are its main functions and purpose (with which it often fails).

The state is called upon to be a means and a mechanism for the implementation of care in the society that creates it, about life support and development. It serves society, performing an organizing role, developing and implementing the technology of survival and development, a safe existence.

Impact on the biosphere modern man occurs in the following main areas:

changing the structure of the earth's surface (plowing land, mining, deforestation, draining swamps, creating artificial reservoirs and watercourses, etc.);

the change chemical composition natural environment, circulation and balance of substances (removal and processing of minerals, disposal of industrial waste in dumps, at landfills, in the air, water bodies);

change in the energy (in particular, heat) balance within the limits of both individual regions of the globe and at the planetary level;

changes in the composition of the biota (the totality of living organisms) as a result of the extermination of some species of animals and plants, the creation of other species (breeds), their movement to new habitats (introduction).

As of the end of the XX century. among the existing sources of exposure are:

the main sources of anthropogenic air pollution: energy, transport, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemistry and petrochemistry;

the main pollutants of the hydrosphere: enterprises of the pulp and paper, oil refining, chemical, food and light industries. Recently, the share of pollution entering water bodies from industrial agriculture has significantly increased;

the bulk of industrial solid and liquid waste is generated at mining and processing, energy, metallurgical and chemical industries;

List of sources used

1. Halperin M.V. General ecology. Textbook - Moscow, "FORUM-INFA-M", 2006.-339s.

2. Garin V.M., Klenova I.A., Kolesnikov V.I. Ecology for technical universities. - Rostov n / a .: Phoenix, 2003 .-- 384 p.

3. Glushkova, LI Ensuring the ecological and hygienic well-being of the population in the Far North: problems and solutions / LI Glushkova, VG Maimulov, IV Korabelnikov. - SPb .: GMA im. I. I. Mechnikova, 2002 .-- 300 p.

4. Gorelov A. A. "Concepts of modern natural science", uch. manual for university students. M: Humanitarian publishing center "Vlados" 2000-339s.

5. Dezhkin V.V. and Popova L.The. Fundamentals of Biological Nature Management. Tutorial. Moscow: Etera Publishing House, 2005.310 p.

6. Korobkin V.I., Peredelsky L.V. Ecology. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2009.-347s.

7. Krivoshein D.A., Muravei L.A. Ecology and life safety: Textbook. textbook for universities / Ed. L.A. Ant. - M .: UNITY - DANA, 2014.-299s.

8. Lipunov I.N. and others. Environmental protection. - Ural. state forestry engineering. acad. Yekaterinburg, 2010.349s.

9. Lyubimov I.M. General political, economic and social geography: Textbook / Lyubimov I.M. - M .: Helios, 2001 .-- 336 p.

10. Naydysh V.M. "Concepts of modern natural science", uch. manual, M: Gardariki 2010.-399s.

11. Novikov Yu.V. "Ecology, environment and man": a textbook for universities, secondary schools and colleges. - M.: FAIR-PRESS, 2003.-320s.

12. Potapov A.D. Ecology. Textbook 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Moscow, "High School", 2004.-399s.

13. Stepanovskikh A.S. General ecology: Textbook for universities. - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2010.-349s.

14. Ecological foundations of nature management: Textbook. - M .: Publishing House "Dalikov and Co". 2014.-319s.

15. Hwang T.A., Hwang P.A. Fundamentals of Ecology. Series "Textbooks and tutorials". - Rostov n / a .:" Phoenix ", 2009.-329s.

16. Shilov, I.A. Ecology: Textbook. for biol. and honey. specialist. universities .- M .: Higher. shk., 2006 - 512 p.

17. Shchukin I. Ecology. - Rostov n / a. - 2005 .-- 224 p.

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What, from the author's point of view, is the key factor in ensuring environmental safety? Name the three elements of the legal component of the environmental safety infrastructure named in the text. What is the factor in the final formation of international environmental law as an independent industry international law what is the author's name?

(according to V.P. Anisimov)

Explanation.

1. The answer to the first question, for example: environmental safety cannot be fully ensured in one single country; International activity;

2. The answer to the second question, for example: the creation of a sufficiently complete system of special environmental legislation, strengthening the regulatory and technical base, greening legislative acts in other areas of activity;

(The answer to the second question is valid only if the three elements mentioned in the text are indicated.)

3. The answer to the third question, for example: for the final formation of international environmental law as an independent branch of international law, its codification is necessary.

Response elements can be presented both in the form of a quotation, and in the form of a concise reproduction of the main ideas of the corresponding fragments of the text.

The author lists the cultural elements of the environmental safety infrastructure. Name any two as specified by the author. Give two examples each illustrating the manifestation of each of them in the task of solving a global environmental problem. (List the elements first, then give examples that illustrate it. Each example should be formulated in length.)

Environmental security cannot be fully ensured in one single country; to achieve it, vigorous international activities are required. The developed countries have basically already destroyed their natural environment and are now the main environmental pollutants. Large densely populated developing countries have also almost completely destroyed their ecosystems, while other developing countries are rapidly moving along the same path, savagely destroying nature in their territories and increasing the mass of emitted pollutants. It is necessary to develop an effective international mechanism for stopping the process of destruction of the natural environment, preserving what is left of it, and moving on to expanding such territories.

Another important element of the task of ensuring environmental safety is the further development of the legal component of the infrastructure. It is necessary to create a fairly complete system of special environmental legislation, strengthen the regulatory and technical base, as well as greening legislative acts in other areas of activity that are important for solving the main strategic objectives of environmental safety.

The cultural elements of the infrastructure for ensuring environmental safety are the system for collecting, accumulating, processing, issuing and analyzing information on the entire range of environmental problems, the system of environmental education, training and education, research and development of human interaction with the biosphere.

Objects of international environmental law are natural objects under national jurisdiction or outside it (international international natural objects). The legal regime of the first objects is determined by domestic law and partly by the norms of international law, that is, there is a correlation and interaction between domestic and international law. Usually developed by world practice, received universal recognition and enshrined in international legal acts, progressive principles are transformed into norms of domestic law. The legal regime of the second objects is determined by international law. For a long time, the question of ownership of these objects did not arise at all. The tacit recognition of international international natural objects as a nobody's thing and agreement with the right of any country to seize these objects prevailed. But in modern conditions such a situation has become less and less to meet the interests and needs of the peoples of the world. Some international legal principles began to be developed and gradually introduced into practice, limiting the possibility of arbitrary actions in relation to international international natural objects.

International environmental law has not yet been codified, its norms are enshrined in numerous international acts of a comprehensive nature. For the final formation of international environmental law as an independent branch of international law, its codification is necessary. The solution of the emerging problems of international environmental law and the further improvement of the quality of life of mankind is possible within the framework of stable socio-economic development that does not destroy the natural biotic mechanism of self-regulation of nature.

(according to V.P. Anisimov)

Explanation.

The correct answer should name two elements and provide examples to illustrate the manifestation of each of them in the task of solving a global environmental problem:

1) the system of environmental education, for example:

In many general education schools, environmental circles are created to expand students' knowledge of ecology;

Environmental education of children in preschool institutions includes the participation of children in activities within their power of caring for plants and animals;

2) research and development of human interaction with the biosphere, for example:

Among the most sought-after areas of research and development by Swedish scientists are biofuels, smart grids, and carbon capture and storage.

Only examples formulated in detail are considered (individual words and phrases are not counted as examples).

What are the two methods of legal regulation named by the author? Which method is preferable for the norms of environmental law? Give an example of any one norm of environmental law and indicate to which method of legal regulation it relates.

Explanation.

1) two methods of legal regulation are named:

Administrative and legal (imperative);

Civil law (optional);

2) preferential method:

Imperative (administrative and legal;

3) the norm of environmental law:

Citizens are prohibited from harvesting and collecting mushrooms and wild plants, the species of which are listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (imperative method).

Other norms of environmental law can be cited, another method of legal regulation is indicated.

The classification of the branches of Russian law is based on the subject and method of legal regulation.

Environmental law is an independent branch of law, which has its own subject and method.

The subject of environmental law forms a specific group of relations that develop in the process of interaction between society and nature (environmental relations). Since this interaction is manifested in two main forms, we can say that the subject of environmental law is public relations regarding the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection.

The method of legal regulation is a set of methods and means of legal influence on social relations. As you know, legal regulation is carried out using two main methods - administrative and legal (imperative), which involves the relationship of power and subordination between the subjects, the establishment of mandatory prescriptions and prohibitions, as well as civil (dispositive), based on the equality of participants in legal relations and freedom their will. The peculiarities of the method of the branch of law are determined by the nature of the regulated relations, the originality of its subject.

Environmental law combines both of these methods. Taking into account the importance of the environmental interests of the society, on behalf of which the state acts, the legal regulation of environmental relations is carried out mainly using the administrative-legal method: the competent state bodies adopt regulations that provide for environmental rules that are binding on all participants in relations in the field of environmental management and protection the natural environment.

based on materials from the Internet encyclopedia

Explanation.

The following elements must be present in the correct answer:

1) definition:

The branch of environmental law is a system of legal norms regulating relations for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of the natural environment with the aim of preserving, reproducing and improving it.

2) two forms of interaction:

Rational use of natural resources;

Environmental protection.

A different wording of the definition may be given.

Using social science knowledge, explain the characteristics of economic growth given by the authors: “environmentally friendly” and “socially just”. Through what, according to the author, will be implemented environmentally friendly and socially fair economic growth?

Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.

In the context of a protracted exit from the financial and economic crisis of 2008-2009. and a gradual recovery of business activity ... efforts have intensified to find a new model of economic development ... In the process of these searches, considerable attention, especially from foreign experts, is paid to the development of an updated concept of environmentally sound and socially equitable economic growth through a phased formation based on structural reforms a new type of economy called by specialists "green" ...

“Green” growth and an updated version of sustainable development are interpreted by international experts as a new engine of the economy, capable of solving a number of acute problems of modern socio-economic development. These include the persisting threat of environmental degradation and depletion of key natural resources, an increase in the frequency of weather anomalies and dramatic climate change ...

In this regard, as an emotionally different reason, let us turn our attention to the unacceptably low position of the country in international environmental ratings. Following the rating of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), which assesses the activity of enterprises in the field of "green" innovations, according to which Russia has closed the list of countries in which the most comfortable conditions for business development using environmentally friendly technologies have been created, another rating has become public. We are talking about the updated rating of the most environmentally friendly economies in the world (Environmental Performance Index), in which Russia took 106th place (out of the list of 132 countries).

The task of transitioning to concrete steps in the formation of a "green" economy, including the necessary structural reforms and tools to stimulate them, is particularly acute for Russia in the context of a deteriorating global economic situation and the threat of a new wave of the financial and economic crisis.

(N.V. Pakhomov, K.K. Richter, G.V. Malyshkov)

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) The answer should contain explanations for each characteristic:

Environmentally friendly - economic growth not associated with further environmental pollution and depletion of resources;

Socially fair - economic growth, the consequence of which is an increase in the level and quality of life of all segments of the population, and not just the upper class.

Other explanations may be given for each characteristic.

2) The answer to the second question is given:

Through the gradual formation on the basis of structural reforms of a new type of economy, called by specialists "green".

Source: USE 2014 in social studies. The main wave. Siberia Option 362 (part C)

Based on your knowledge of the social science course, explain the meaning of the concept of "global problems". What condition for solving the emerging problems of international environmental law does the author call? What are the two types of objects of international environmental law named in the text?

(according to V.P. Anisimov)

Explanation.

The correct answer should contain the following elements:

1. Explanation, for example: a set of social and natural problems, on the solution of which the social progress of all mankind and the preservation of civilization depend;

(Another explanation could be given.)

2. Answer to the first question: stable socio-economic development that does not destroy the natural biotic mechanism of self-regulation of nature;

3. Answer to the second question: natural objects under national jurisdiction or outside it

(international international natural sites).

The answer to the second question is valid only if two types of objects mentioned in the text are indicated.

Answers to questions can be presented both in the form of quotations and in the form of a concise reproduction of the main ideas of the corresponding fragments of the text.

The author writes that the norms of international environmental law are enshrined in numerous international acts. Based on the text and social science knowledge, name and briefly explain any three forms of interaction that can coordinate the joint efforts of countries and their governments aimed at solving a global environmental problem.

(according to V.P. Anisimov)

Explanation.

The correct answer should contain the following elements:

1. Holding international conferences (for example, at international conferences problems are discussed and decisions are made on the basis of which states can amend laws, securing the right to an adequate environment and the state's obligations to preserve this environment;

2. Creation of international organizations (for example, international organizations can coordinate the actions of national governments, make recommendations, stimulate discussion of the most pressing problems);

3. Signing of international environmental documents (for example, the signing of such a document imposes an obligation on states to comply with the agreements reached).

Measures can be formulated differently, other correct explanations can be given.

Using the text and social science knowledge, name two types of legal liability for violation of environmental law. Illustrate each of them with an example, each time indicating what kind of responsibility you are illustrating.

Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.

The classification of the branches of Russian law is based on the subject and method of legal regulation.

Environmental law is an independent branch of law, which has its own subject and method.

based on materials from the Internet encyclopedia

Explanation.

The following elements must be present in the correct answer:

1) types of responsibility:

Administrative;

Criminal;

2) examples:

Citizen I., walking her dog in early spring, allowed her to trample the snowdrops lawn (administrative responsibility);

The director of the company "Les i priroda" did not prevent illegal felling and damage to the forest in a significant amount, which was carried out by his company (criminal liability).

Other types of responsibility may be named. Other examples may be given

What are the three forms of negative human impact on the environment named in the text? Give examples of each of the negative environmental impacts identified in the text.

Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.

In our century, the solution to a number of problems can no longer be limited to the scale of one country, they have to be solved on the scale of our entire planet. This perception of the planetary nature of man's relationship with nature first arose in connection with the appearance of the atomic bomb and the threat of a world nuclear war. It is generally accepted that such a war, wherever it arises, in a few hours could poison the entire globe and end human life. It is this threat that makes people refuse to use nuclear weapons.

Now the world's population is estimated at 3.7 billion people. If it continues to grow at the same rate (on average 2% per year) as in this century, then in 700 years our planet will be so densely populated that for every square meter of the entire surface of the globe there will be one person. Of course, this is impossible, and the process of increasing human reproduction must end long before that. When and under what factors this will happen and what the civilization will turn into, is the most important global problem of the near future.

One of the most important global problems associated with energy, since the use of natural energy resources by people is the main factor that determines the level of modern civilization and the well-being of mankind. Now the largest source of raw materials in the energy sector is coal, and if its consumption stops at the current level, then coal reserves will be sufficient for about a thousand years. Even if humanity does not grow, but energy consumption per capita grows at the same rate as over the past 100 years, then coal reserves will only last for 100-150 years. An even closer crisis can be foreseen for other types of raw materials. For example, silver will suffice within 13-40 years, lead - 20-60 years, etc. (taking into account the use of new, not yet found natural reserves on a fivefold scale).

The depletion of raw materials for some of the important substances is already threatening our generation. And therefore, the solution of issues related to the technical and economic aspect of the problem "man and nature" must be considered urgent. But here the socio-political aspect immediately arises: due to the global nature, the solution of these issues is impossible on a national scale, it is real only with broad international cooperation based on the principles of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems.

The next problem - environmental - arises as a result of a disturbance in the balance of nature due to environmental pollution on the same global scale. The difficulty in solving this problem lies in the fact that the global scale of technical processes at the modern level of civilization began to change the environment around us in such a way - to pollute the air, water and soil, to destroy forests, to change natural landscapes - that the biological balance that existed until now in nature can no longer survive, and this begins to lead to the death of fauna and flora, which are necessary for the existence of people.

When, on a global scale, a shortage of materials and energy resources begins to arise and this begins to catastrophically affect the level of human well-being, then humanity will have no choice but to begin to reduce weapons, since the risk of death from aggression will be less real than the risk of death from shortage material resources. In addition, since the solution of global problems should take place with close international cooperation, people will begin to feel that they live in a common apartment and that all mankind has only one common enemy: this is the coming global crisis, with which, having forgotten all strife, it is necessary to begin fight together.

(by P. L. Kapitsa)

Explanation.

A correct answer must contain the following elements:

Three forms of negative human impact on the environment according to the text with examples;

1) air, water and soil pollution (for example, air, water and soil pollution as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant);

2) deforestation (for example, deforestation in the Amazon);

3) changes in natural landscapes (for example, a reduction in the area of the Aral Sea; soil erosion as a result of improper management during the development of virgin lands in the USSR).

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic "The ecological crisis as a global problem of our time." The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

1. The concept of global problems, their types:

a) environmental;

b) the problem of the North and South;

v) international terrorism.

2.The essence of the global environmental crisis:

a) the disappearance of biological species;

b) pollution of the atmosphere, soil, oceans;

G) global warming etc.

3. Causes of the global environmental problem:

a) The growth of the scale of the economic activity of people.

b) Consumer attitude to nature.

4. Signs of a global environmental problem:

a) affects the interests of all countries and peoples;

b) requires an immediate solution and the pooling of efforts of all mankind, etc.

5. Ways to overcome the environmental crisis:

a) changing the attitude of people to nature;

b) science at the service of ecology;

c) international cooperation in solving environmental issues.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in the naming question or mixed forms.

The presence of any two of 2-5 points of the plan in a given or similar formulation will allow to reveal the content of this topic in essence.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to uncover essentially the topic "Environmental rights of citizens and how to protect them." The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following is taken into account:

Correspondence of the structure of the proposed answer to a complex type plan;

The presence of points in the plan indicating the examinee's understanding of the main aspects of the topic, without which it cannot be disclosed in essence;

The correctness of the wording of the points of the plan.

The wording of the points of the plan, which are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic, are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic

1. The concept of environmental law.

2. Basic environmental rights of citizens:

a) the right to a healthy environment;

b) the right to reliable information about the state of the environment;

c) the right to compensation for damage caused to health or property by an environmental offense.

3. Mechanisms for protecting the environmental rights of citizens:

a) non-judicial;

b) judicial.

4. Types of legal liability for environmental offenses:

a) administrative;

b) criminal, etc.

5. The concept of the environment, its elements:

a) natural objects;

b) natural and anthropogenic objects;

c) anthropogenic objects.

6. Environmental responsibilities of citizens.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in denomination, question or mixed forms.

Any two of 2-5. points of the plan in a given or similar in meaning formulation will reveal the content of this topic in essence.

The Prime Minister of Country M in a television interview said that the solution of environmental problems is of paramount importance. Which of the following measures indicate that the government is taking steps to address them? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) tougher enforcement state control for compliance by enterprises with legal requirements for environmental protection

2) participation in conferences on countering international terrorist organizations

3) the signing of the international convention on the status of political refugees

4) pursuing a family planning policy

5) allocation of investments to expand the participation of schoolchildren in projects to study human impact on the biosphere

6) expansion of the program for the development of energy-saving and waste-free technologies

Explanation.

1) toughening the implementation of state control over the compliance by enterprises with legal requirements for environmental protection - yes, that's right, since environmental protection is an environmental issue.

2) participation in conferences on countering international terrorist organizations - no, wrong, international terrorism is not an environmental problem.

3) signing an international convention on the status of political refugees - no, it is not true, the status of political refugees is not an environmental issue.

4) pursuing a family planning policy - no, wrong, family planning is not an environmental issue.

5) the allocation of investments to expand the participation of schoolchildren in projects to study the human impact on the biosphere -

6) expansion of the program for the development of energy-saving and waste-free technologies - yes, that's right, this is one of the ways to solve environmental problems.

Answer: 156.

Since the early 2000s. the government of country Z has taken a number of measures to improve the environmental situation. In 2005 and 2015. the sociological service conducted a survey of adult citizens. They were asked the question: "How do you and your family participate in the preservation of the natural environment?" The results of the survey (in% of the number of respondents) are presented in the form of a diagram.

Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) In the 2015 survey, the share of those who participate in the greening of their community is less than the share of those who participate in ecological holidays and festivals.

2) In the 2005 survey, the proportion of those who saved water and monitored the health of water taps is greater than the proportion of those who sorted household waste.

3) For ten years, people have become less likely to participate in environmental holidays and festivals.

4) Equal shares of respondents in both surveys are involved in cleaning parks and courtyards from garbage.

5) The share of those who cannot say that they participate in the preservation of the natural environment has decreased in 10 years.

Explanation.

1) In the 2015 survey, the share of those who participate in the greening of their community is less than the share of those who participate in ecological holidays, festivals - no, it is not true.

2) In the 2005 survey, the share of those who saved water, monitored the health of water taps, more than the share of those who sorted household waste - yes, that's right.

3) For ten years, people have become less likely to participate in environmental holidays, festivals - no, that's wrong.

4) Equal shares of respondents in both surveys are involved in cleaning parks and courtyards from garbage - yes, that's right.

5) The share of those who cannot say that they participate in the preservation of the natural environment has decreased in 10 years - yes, that's right.

Answer: 245.

Establish a correspondence between examples of manifestation and a characteristic of global problems: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

MANIFESTATIONS

GLOBAL PROBLEMS

A) gradual depletion of oil and metal reserves

B) activation of the activities of extremist groups (hostage-taking, preparation and conduct of explosions in crowded places)

C) rapid population growth in Asia, Africa and Latin America

D) an increase in the gap in the level of gross national income per capita between groups of countries

E) an increase in diseases caused by waste from hazardous industries

1) the threat of global terrorism

2) the threat of an environmental crisis

3) the North-South problem

A	B	V	G	D

Explanation.

Environmental crisis - & nbsp is a crisis associated with the depletion of natural resources, environmental pollution, etc.

The threat of world terrorism - & nbsp an increase in hostage-taking, explosions in the world, extremist gaze and the destruction of civilians.

The "North-South" problem is a problem of the countries of the North and South, countries of the developed and backward countries of the Third World (Africa, Latin America).

A) gradual depletion of oil and metal reserves - the threat of an environmental crisis.

B) activation of the activities of extremist groups (hostage-taking, preparation and conduct of explosions in crowded places) - the threat of world terrorism.

C) the rapid population growth in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America - the problem "North - South".

D) an increase in the gap in the level of gross national income per capita between groups of countries - the problem "North - South".

E) the growth of diseases caused by waste from hazardous industries - the threat of an environmental crisis.

Answer: 21332.

Answer: 21332

Subject area: Man and Society. Threats of the XXI century

the guest 21.06.2013 13:29

correct answer 2132 there are only 4 manifestations of global problems

Valentin I. Kirichenko

You are wrong, in the task 5 manifestations of global problems. Be careful.

Choose the correct judgments about the state and its functions and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The external functions of the state include the determination of the general direction of the country's economic development.

2) The state has a monopoly on the lawful use of coercion by the forces of the army, law enforcement and security agencies.

3) The requirements established by the state on environmental policy issues form the basis of the country's environmental safety.

4) The state creates a regulatory and organizational framework for the activities of state bodies.

5) The fundamental feature of a state of any type is the implementation of the principle of separation of powers.

Explanation.

The state is an organization of political power that manages society and ensures order and stability in it. The main features of the state are: the presence of a certain territory, sovereignty, a broad social base, a monopoly on legitimate violence, the right to collect taxes, the public nature of power, the presence of state symbols. The state performs internal functions, among which are economic, stabilization, coordination, social, etc. There are also external functions, the most important of which are the provision of defense and the establishment of international cooperation. According to the form of government, states are divided into monarchies (constitutional and absolute) and republics (parliamentary, presidential and mixed). Depending on the form of government, unitary states, federations and confederations are distinguished.

1) The external functions of the state include the determination of the general direction of the country's economic development - no, it is wrong. This is an internal function.

2) The state has a monopoly on the lawful use of coercion by the forces of the army, law enforcement and security agencies - yes, that's right.

Establish a correspondence between examples and types of global problems that illustrate them: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.

A	B	V	G	D

Explanation.

EXAMPLE

GLOBAL PROBLEM

A) violation of the density of the ozone layer

B) the problem of preserving forests and biological diversity

C) poisoning of the environment by chemicals created during the production process

D) slow growth and natural decline and aging of the population in the countries of the north

1) the threat of a new world war

2) ecological crisis and its consequences

3) the lag of developing countries of the "third world" from developed countries

4) the demographic situation on the planet

5) alcoholism and drug addiction

6) international terrorism

Explanation.

1) the threat of a new world war - yes, that's right.

2) the ecological crisis and its consequences - yes, that's right.

3) the lag of the developing countries of the "third world" from the developed countries - yes, that's right.

4) the demographic situation on the planet - no, it is wrong, no connection can be traced.

5) alcoholism and drug addiction - no, wrong, no connection can be traced.

6) international terrorism - no, wrong, no connection can be traced.

Answer: 123.

Answer: 123

1) Improving the system of intraschool control.

2) Selection of teaching aids that meet new requirements.

3) Proposals to improve the environmental situation in the region.

4) Acquaintance with the state of affairs in your region.

5) Development of skills in collecting and processing information.

6) Striving to better prepare for the exam.

Explanation.

1) Improvement of the system of intraschool control - no, it is wrong, has nothing to do with this activity and cannot be its result.

2) The choice of teaching aids that meet the new requirements - no, it is wrong, has nothing to do with this activity and cannot be its result.

3) Proposals to improve the environmental situation in the region - yes, right.

4) Acquaintance with the state of affairs in your region - yes, that's right.

MANIFESTATION

TYPE OF THE GLOBAL PROBLEM

A) Large-scale forced migration from developing countries to developed ones.

B) Global climate change.

C) High concentration of mass poverty and poverty in countries

Tropical Africa.

D) Reduction of biodiversity of the Earth.

E) Limited natural hydrocarbon reserves.

1) environmental problems

2) the North-South problem

3) energy problem

Write down the numbers in the answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	V	G	D

Explanation.

In accordance with Art. 71 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation includes: the adoption and amendment of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, control over their observance; federal structure and territory of the Russian Federation; regulation and protection of human and civil rights and freedoms; citizenship in the Russian Federation; regulation and protection of the rights of national minorities; establishment of a system of federal bodies of legislative, executive and judicial power, the procedure for their organization and activity; the formation of federal bodies of state power; federal state property and its management; establishment of the foundations of federal policy and federal programs in the field of state, economic, environmental, social, cultural and national development of the Russian Federation; establishing the legal framework for the single market; financial, currency, credit, customs regulation, money issue, the basics of pricing policy; federal economic services, including federal banks; federal budget; federal taxes and fees; federal funds for regional development; federal power systems, nuclear power, fissile materials; federal transport, communications, information and communication; activities in space; foreign policy and international relationships Russian Federation, international treaties of the Russian Federation; issues of war and peace; foreign economic relations of the Russian Federation; defense and security; defense production; determination of the procedure for the sale and purchase of weapons, ammunition, military equipment and other military property; production of poisonous substances, narcotic drugs and the procedure for their use; determination of the status and protection of the state border, territorial sea, air space, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf of the Russian Federation; judicial system; the prosecutor's office; criminal, criminal procedure and penal legislation; amnesty and pardon; civil, civil procedural and arbitration procedural legislation; legal regulation of intellectual property; federal conflict of laws law; meteorological service, standards, measurement standards, metric system and time calculation; geodesy and cartography; names of geographical objects; official statistics and accounting; state awards and honorary titles of the Russian Federation; federal government service.

A) state awards and honorary titles of the Russian Federation - only the federal center.

B) coordination of health care issues - the federal center and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

C) environmental protection and environmental safety - the federal center and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

D) the federal budget - only the federal center.

D) cadres of judicial and law enforcement- federal center and subjects of the Russian Federation.

Answer: 12212.

Answer: 12212

Human impact on the environment

The more we take from the world, the less we leave in it, and ultimately we will be forced to pay our debts at the very moment, which may be very inappropriate in order to ensure the continuation of our lives.

Norbert Wiener

Man began to change natural complexes already at the primitive stage of the development of civilization, during the period of hunting and gathering, when he began to use fire. The domestication of wild animals and the development of agriculture have expanded the area of manifestation of the consequences of human activity. With the development of industry and the replacement of muscle power with fuel energy, the intensity of anthropogenic influence continued to increase. In the XX century. due to particularly rapid growth rates of the population and its needs, it has reached unprecedented levels and spread throughout the world.

When considering human impact on the environment, one must always remember the most important environmental postulates, formulated in Tyler Miller's wonderful book "Living in the Environment".

1. Whatever we do in nature, everything in it causes certain consequences, often unpredictable.
2. Everything in nature is interconnected, and we live in it all together.
3. Earth's life support systems can withstand significant pressure and gross interference, but there is a limit to everything.
4. Nature is not only more complex than we think about it, it is much more complex than we can imagine.

All man-made complexes (landscapes) can be divided into two groups depending on the purpose of their origin:

- direct - created by purposeful human activity: cultivated fields, garden and park complexes, reservoirs, etc., they are often called cultural;
- accompanying - not envisaged and usually undesirable, which were activated or caused by human activity: swamps along the banks of reservoirs, ravines in the fields, quarry-dump landscapes, etc.

Each anthropogenic landscape has its own history of development, sometimes very complex and, most importantly, extremely dynamic. In a few years or decades, anthropogenic landscapes can undergo such profound changes that natural landscapes will not experience in many thousands of years. The reason for this is the continuous human intervention in the structure of these landscapes, and this intervention necessarily affects the person himself. Here's just one example. In 1955, when nine out of every ten residents of North Borneo contracted malaria, on the recommendation of The World Organization Health Protection (WHO) on the island to control mosquitoes - vectors of malaria, began to spray the toxic chemical dieldrin. The disease was practically expelled, but the unforeseen consequences of such a struggle turned out to be terrible: not only mosquitoes, but also other insects, in particular flies and cockroaches, died from dieldrin; then the lizards who lived in the houses and ate dead insects died; after that, cats began to die, eating dead lizards; without cats, rats began to multiply rapidly - and the plague epidemic began to threaten people. They got out of this situation by dropping healthy cats on parachutes. But ... it turned out that the dieldrin had no effect on the caterpillars, but destroyed those insects that fed on them, and then numerous caterpillars began to eat not only the leaves of trees, but also the leaves that served as a roof for roofs, as a result, roofs began to collapse.

Anthropogenic changes in the environment are very diverse. By directly influencing only one of the components of the environment, a person can indirectly change the rest. In both the first and second cases, there is a violation of the circulation of substances in the natural complex, and from this point of view, the results of the impact on the environment can be attributed to several groups.

To the first group include impacts leading only to a change in the concentration of chemical elements and their compounds without changing the shape of the substance itself. For example, emissions from road transport increase the concentration of lead and zinc in air, soil, water and plants, many times higher than their usual levels. In this case, the quantitative assessment of the impact is expressed in terms of the mass of pollutants.

Second group- impacts lead not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in the forms of finding elements (within individual anthropogenic landscapes). Such transformations are often observed during the development of deposits, when many elements of ores, including toxic heavy metals, are transferred from the mineral form to aqueous solutions. At the same time, their total content within the complex does not change, but they become more accessible for plant and animal organisms. Another example is the changes associated with the transition of elements from a biogenic to an abiogenic form. So, when a person is cutting forests, cutting down a hectare of pine forest, and then burning it, he converts about 100 kg of potassium, 300 kg of nitrogen and calcium, 30 kg of aluminum, magnesium, sodium, etc. from the biogenic form to the mineral form.

Third group- the formation of technogenic compounds and elements that have no analogues in nature or are not typical for a given area. There are more and more such changes every year. This is the appearance of freon in the atmosphere, plastics in soils and waters, weapons-grade plutonium, cesium in the seas, the widespread accumulation of poorly decomposed pesticides, etc. In total, about 70,000 different synthetic materials are used on a daily basis in the world. chemical substances... About 1,500 new ones are added every year. It should be noted that little is known about the impact on the environment of most of them, but at least half of them are harmful or potentially harmful to human health.

Fourth group- mechanical movement of significant masses of elements without significant transformation of the forms of their location. An example is the movement of rock masses during the development of deposits both by open and underground methods. Traces of quarries, underground voids and waste heaps (hills with steep slopes formed by waste waste rock displaced from mines) will exist on Earth for many thousands of years. This group also includes the movement of significant masses of soils during dust storms of anthropogenic origin (one dust storm is capable of transferring about 25 km 3 of soil).

Analyzing the results of human activity, one should also take into account the state of the natural complex itself, its resistance to impacts. Sustainability is one of the most difficult and controversial concepts in geography. Any natural complex is characterized by certain parameters, properties (one of them, for example, is the amount of biomass). Each parameter has a threshold value - such a quantity, upon reaching which changes in the qualitative state of the components occur. These thresholds are practically not studied and often, when predicting future changes in natural complexes under the influence of one or another activity, it is impossible to indicate the specific scale and exact time frame of these changes.
What is the real scale of modern anthropogenic influence? Here are some numbers. More than 100 billion tons of minerals are extracted annually from the bowels of the Earth; smelted 800 million tons of various metals; produce more than 60 million tons of synthetic materials unknown in nature; more than 500 million tons of mineral fertilizers and about 3 million tons of various pesticides are introduced into the soils of agricultural land, 1/3 of which enters water bodies with surface runoff or is retained in the atmosphere (when dispersed from aircraft). For his needs, a person uses more than 13% of river flow and discharges more than 500 billion m3 of industrial and municipal waste into water bodies annually. The listing can be continued, but the above is enough to realize the global nature of human influence on the environment, and hence the global nature of the problems arising in connection with this.

Let us consider the consequences of the three main types of human economic activity, although, of course, they do not exhaust the entire complex of anthropogenic influence on the environment.

1. Industrial influences

Industry - the largest branch of material production - plays a central role in the economy of modern society and is the main driving force behind its growth. Over the past century, world industrial production has increased more than 50 (!) Times, and 4/5 of this growth falls on the period since 1950, i.e. the period of active introduction into production of the achievements of scientific and technological progress. Naturally, such a rapid growth of the industry, which ensures our well-being with you, primarily affected the environment, the load on which has increased many times over.

Industry and its products affect the environment at all stages of the industrial cycle: from exploration and extraction of raw materials, its processing into finished products, waste generation and ending with the use of finished products by the consumer, and then its elimination due to further unsuitability. At the same time, land is alienated for the construction of industrial facilities and entrances to them; constant use of water (in all industries) 1; the release of substances from the processing of raw materials into water and air; removal of substances from soil, rocks, biosphere, etc. The pressure on landscapes and their components in leading industries is carried out as follows.

Energy. Energy is the basis for the development of all branches of industry, agriculture, transport, utilities. This is an industry with a very high rate of development and a huge scale of production. Accordingly, the share of participation of energy enterprises in the load on the environment is very significant. The annual energy consumption in the world is more than 10 billion tons of standard fuel, and this figure is constantly increasing 2. To obtain energy, either fuel is used - oil, gas, coal, wood, peat, shale, nuclear materials, or other primary energy sources - water, wind, solar energy, etc. Almost all fuel resources are non-renewable - and this is the first stage of impact on the nature of the energy industry - irrevocable withdrawal of masses of matter.

Each of the sources, when used, is characterized by specific parameters. pollution of natural complexes.

Coal- the most abundant fossil fuel on our planet. When it is burned, carbon dioxide, fly ash, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, fluoride compounds, as well as gaseous products of incomplete combustion of fuel are released into the atmosphere. Sometimes fly ash contains extremely harmful impurities such as arsenic, free silicon dioxide, free calcium oxide.

Oil. When burning liquid fuel, in addition to carbon dioxide, sulfur and sulfuric anhydrides, nitrogen oxides, vanadium and sodium compounds, gaseous and solid products of incomplete combustion are released into the air. Liquid fuel produces less harmful substances than solid, but the use of oil in the energy sector is decreasing (due to the depletion of natural reserves and its exclusive use in transport, in the chemical industry).

Natural gas - the most harmless of fossil fuels. When it is burned, nitrogen oxides are the only significant air pollutant besides CO 2.

Wood most used in developing countries (70% of the population of these countries burns an average of about 700 kg per person per year). Burning wood is harmless - carbon dioxide and water vapor get into the air, but the structure of biocenoses is disturbed - the destruction of forest cover causes changes in all components of the landscape.

Nuclear fuel. The use of nuclear fuel is one of the most controversial issues in the modern world. Of course, nuclear power plants to a much lesser extent than thermal (using coal, oil, gas) pollute the atmospheric air, but the amount of water used at nuclear power plants is twice the consumption at thermal plants - 2.5-3 km 3 per year at NPPs with a capacity of 1 million kW, and the thermal discharge at NPPs per unit of energy produced is significantly higher than at TPPs under similar conditions. But especially heated debates are caused by the problems of radioactive waste and the safety of operation of nuclear power plants. The colossal consequences for the natural environment and humans of possible accidents at nuclear reactors do not allow us to relate to nuclear energy as optimistic as it was in the initial period of using the "peaceful atom".

If we consider the impact of utilization of fossil fuels on other components of natural complexes, then it should be highlighted impact on natural waters... For the needs of cooling generators at power plants, a huge water intake is made: to generate 1 kW of electricity, 200 to 400 liters of water are needed; a modern TPP with a capacity of 1 million kW requires 1.2–1.6 km 3 of water per year. Typically, water abstraction for cooling systems of power plants accounts for 50-60% of the total industrial water withdrawal. The return of wastewater heated in cooling systems causes thermal pollution of the water, as a result of which, in particular, the solubility of oxygen in water decreases and at the same time the vital activity of aquatic organisms is activated, which begin to consume more oxygen.

The next aspect of the negative impact on the landscape during the extraction of fuels - alienation of large areas, on which vegetation is destroyed, the structure of the soil and the water regime change. This applies primarily to open-pit mining of fuel (in the world, about 85% of minerals and building materials are mined by open-pit mining).

Among other primary sources of energy - wind, river water, sun, ebb and flow, underground heat - water occupies a special place. Geothermal power plants, solar panels, wind turbines, tidal power plants have the advantage of low environmental impact, but their spread in modern world quite limited so far.

River waters used by hydroelectric power plants (HPPs), which convert the energy of the water flow into electricity, practically do not have a polluting effect on the environment (with the exception of thermal pollution). Their Negative influence on ecology is different. Hydraulic structures, primarily dams, disrupt the regimes of rivers and reservoirs, prevent fish migration, and affect the level of groundwater. The reservoirs created to level the river flow and uninterrupted supply of water to the hydroelectric power station also have a detrimental effect on the environment. The total area of only large reservoirs in the world is 180 thousand km 2 (the same amount of flooded lands), and the volume of water in them is about 5 thousand km 3. In addition to the flooding of lands, the creation of reservoirs greatly changes the regime of river flow, affects local climatic conditions, which, in turn, affects the vegetation cover along the banks of the reservoir.

Metallurgy ... The impact of metallurgy begins with the extraction of ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores, some of which, such as copper and lead, have been used since ancient times, while others - titanium, beryllium, zirconium, germanium - have been actively used only in recent decades (for the needs of radio engineering, electronics , nuclear technology). But since the middle of the 20th century, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution, the extraction of both new and traditional metals has sharply increased and therefore the number of natural disturbances associated with the movement of significant masses of rocks has increased.
In addition to the main raw material - metal ores - metallurgy quite actively consumes water. Approximate figures of water consumption for the needs of, for example, ferrous metallurgy are as follows: for the production of 1 ton of pig iron, about 100 m 3 of water is spent; for the production of 1 ton of steel - 300 m 3; for the manufacture of 1 ton of rolled products - 30 m 3 of water.
But the most dangerous side of the impact of metallurgy on the environment is the man-made scattering of metals. With all the difference in the properties of metals, all of them in relation to the landscape are impurities. Their concentration can increase tens and hundreds of times without external changes in the environment (water remains water, and soil - soil, but the mercury content in them increases tens of times). The main danger of scattered metals is their ability to gradually accumulate in organisms of plants and animals, which disrupts food chains.
Metals are released into the environment at almost all stages of metallurgical production. Some are lost during transportation, dressing, sorting of ores. So, in one decade at this stage, about 600 thousand tons of copper, 500 thousand tons of zinc, 300 thousand tons of lead, 50 thousand tons of molybdenum were dispersed all over the world. Further emission occurs directly at the production stage (and not only metals are emitted, but also other harmful substances). The air around metallurgical plants is smoky and has an increased dust content. Nickel production is characterized by emissions of arsenic and large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO 2); aluminum production is accompanied by fluorine emissions, etc. Environmental pollution is also carried out by waste water from metallurgical plants.
The most dangerous pollutants include lead, cadmium and mercury, followed by copper, tin, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, cobalt, nickel, antimony, arsenic and selenium.
In the changing landscape around metallurgical plants, two zones can be distinguished. The first, with a radius of 3-5 km, directly adjacent to the enterprise, is characterized by almost complete destruction of the original natural complex. Here vegetation is often absent, the soil cover is largely disturbed, animals and microorganisms inhabiting the complex have disappeared. The second zone is more extensive, up to 20 km, looks less oppressed - here the disappearance of the biocenosis rarely occurs, but its individual parts are disturbed and an increased content of pollutant elements is observed in all components of the complex.

Chemical industry - one of the most dynamic industries in most countries; new productions often appear in it, new technologies are introduced. But it is also associated with the appearance of many contemporary problems environmental pollution caused by both its products and technological processes production.
This industry, like metallurgy and energy, is extremely water-intensive. Water is involved in the production of most of the most important chemical products - alkalis, alcohols, nitric acid, hydrogen, etc. The production of 1 ton of synthetic rubber requires up to 2800 m 3 of water, 1 ton of rubber - 4000 m 3, 1 ton of synthetic fiber - 5000 m 3. After use, the water partially returns to reservoirs in the form of highly polluted wastewater, which leads to a weakening or suppression of the vital activity of aquatic organisms, which makes it difficult to self-purify water bodies.
The composition of air emissions from chemical plants is also extremely diverse. Petrochemical industries pollute the atmosphere with hydrogen sulfide and hydrocarbons; production of synthetic rubber - styrene, divinyl, toluene, acetone; alkali production - hydrogen chloride, etc. Substances such as carbon and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, inorganic dust, fluorine-containing substances and many others are also emitted in large quantities.
One of the most problematic aspects of the impact of chemical industries is the proliferation of previously non-existent compounds in nature. Among them, synthetic surfactants - surfactants (sometimes called detergents) are considered to be especially harmful. They enter the environment during the production and use of various detergents in the home. Entering with industrial and domestic wastewater into water bodies, synthetic surfactants are poorly retained by treatment facilities, contribute to the appearance of abundant foam in the water, give it poisonous properties and odor, cause the death and degeneration of aquatic organisms and, which is very significant, increase the toxic effect of other pollutants.
These are the main negative impacts on the natural systems of the world's leading industries. Naturally, the aforementioned influence of industry is not exhausted: there is mechanical engineering, which uses the products of metallurgy and the chemical industry and contributes to the dispersion of many substances in the environment; there are such water-intensive industries as pulp and paper and food, which also provide a large share of organic pollution of the environment, etc. Based on the analysis of the environmental impact of the three main industries, it is possible to determine the nature and paths of industrial environmental pollution for any industry, for which it is necessary to know the specifics of production.

To be continued

Photo by M. Kabanov

1 The total industrial water withdrawal is about 800 km 3 per year with the value of irrecoverable losses of 30–40 km 3.

2 The main energy consumers are the developed countries... For example, in 1989, 249 million Americans used more energy for air conditioning alone than 1.1 billion Chinese for all needs.

06/21/2016 / Donskoy City District

Federal Law No. 7-FZ of 10.01.2002 “On Environmental Protection” for the first time enshrined the principle according to which the negative impact on the environment is paid (paragraph 1 of Article 16).

Clause 2 of Article 16 of the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" refers to the types of negative impact on the environment:

- emissions of pollutants and other substances into the atmospheric air;

- discharges of pollutants, other substances and microorganisms into surface water bodies, ground water bodies and catchment areas; - pollution of subsoil, soil; placement of production and consumption waste; environmental pollution by noise, heat, electromagnetic, ionizing and other types of physical influences;

- other types of negative impact on the environment.

At the same time, by virtue of Article 16 of the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection", the payment for a negative impact on the environment does not exempt business entities and other activities from taking measures to protect the environment and compensate for environmental damage - the customer and (or) the subject economic and other activities, including activities for the removal of components of the natural environment, implies the obligation of these persons to compensate for the damage to the environment, including when the project of such activities has a positive conclusion of the state ecological expertise (Article 77 of the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection").

And about. Prosecutor of the city of Donskoy, junior counselor of justice E.V. Zeleva

Back to the list

Pollution surrounding Wednesday - a change in the quality of the environment that can cause negative consequences.

Pollution (in the narrow sense) is the introduction into any environment of new, uncharacteristic for it physical, chemical and biological agents or the excess of the natural average long-term level of these agents.

Contamination can be of natural or artificial origin.

Pollution classification:

Mechanical - pollution of the environment by agents that have only a mechanical effect without physical and chemical consequences (construction waste, PET bottles, etc.).

2. Chemical - a change in the chemical properties of the environment that have a negative impact on ecosystems and technological devices.

3. Physical - a change in the physical parameters of the environment: temperature and energy (thermal), wave (light, noise, electromagnetic, etc.), for example:

Thermal (thermal) - an increase in the temperature of the environment, mainly due to industrial waste gases and water, to a lesser extent - solid waste (metallurgical slags).

3.2 Light - violation of natural illumination of the area as a result of the action of artificial light sources (this leads to anomalies in the life of plants and animals).

3.3. Noise - an increase in noise intensity above the natural level.

3.4. Electromagnetic - a change in the electromagnetic properties of the environment (from power lines, radio and television, the operation of some industrial installations, etc.) leads to global and local geophysical anomalies and changes in fine biological structures.

Radiation - excess of the natural level of radioactive substances in the environment.

5. Biological - penetration into ecosystems and technological devices of animal and plant species that are alien to these communities and devices, including:

Biotic - the spread of biogenic substances (excretions, dead bodies, etc.), usually undesirable from the point of view of people, in the territory where they have not been observed before.

5.2. Microbiological -

a) an increase in the population of microorganisms associated with their mass reproduction on anthropogenic substrates or in environments changed in the course of human economic activity;

b) the acquisition of a previously harmless form of microorganisms of pathogenic properties or the ability to suppress other organisms in communities.

The listed types of pollution are interrelated and each of them can be an impetus for the emergence of other types of pollution: for example, chemical pollution of the atmosphere can increase viral activity and, consequently, biological pollution.

More controversial is the answer to the question - in what quantitative limits occurring changes in the properties of the environment can be considered as its pollution.

More often than not, pollution is considered only the intake, the introduction into the environment, the presence of various agents in it. However, a decrease in the amount of any component in the environment (for example, oxygen in the atmospheric air) also negatively affects humans and other biological objects and, consequently; should qualify as pollution.

The environmental conditions optimal for human life and activity are within certain, relatively narrow limits.

There are upper and lower critical boundaries of environmental parameters, the achievement of which threatens the onset of irreversible shifts in the biological system and in its individual links.

For example, heavy metals in significant quantities - strong poisons, in small doses - are necessary for humans, otherwise severe functional disorders arise; both excessive noise and its complete absence are harmful to health.

Sources of pollution very diverse: industrial enterprises, heat and power complex, household waste, wastes of animal husbandry, transport, as well as chemicals deliberately introduced by humans into ecosystems to protect useful producers, pests, diseases, weeds.

From an ecological point of view, pollution does not simply mean the introduction of certain alien components into the atmosphere, soil or water - in any case, the object of pollution is an elementary structural unit of the biosphere - biogeocenosis, as a result of which this ecosystem is destroyed or its productivity decreases.

Environmental pollution is a complex and diverse process.

Human impact on the biosphere comes down to four main forms:

- changes in the structure of the earth's surface (plowing of steppes, deforestation, land reclamation, creation of artificial lakes and seas and other changes in the regime of surface waters);

- changes in the composition of the biosphere, circulation and balance of its constituent substances (extraction of fossils, creation of dumps, emission of various substances into the atmosphere and water bodies, change in moisture circulation);

- changes in the energy balance of individual regions of the globe and the entire planet;

- changes made to the biota as a result of the extermination of certain species, the creation of new breeds of animals and plant varieties, and their transfer to new habitats.

Distinguish between pollutants that are destroyed by biological processes and not destroyed (persistent).

The former enter the natural cycles of substances and therefore quickly disappear, being destroyed by biological agents. The latter are not included in the natural cycles of substances, are transmitted along food chains and accumulate.

The objects of pollution are the main components of the ecotope (habitat of a biotic creature): atmosphere, water, soil.

The indirect objects of pollution are the components of the biocenosis - plants, animals, microorganisms.

Ultimately, the object of pollution is the elementary structural unit of the biosphere - biogeocenosis. Changes caused by environmental pollution mean a change in the modes of various environmental factors, their deviation from the requirements of a particular organism (a link in the food chain.).

At the same time, metabolic processes are disrupted, the intensity of assimilation and the productivity of biogeocenosis in general decrease.

Thus, from an ecological point of view, environmental pollution should be called any introduction into an ecosystem of living or nonliving components that are not characteristic of it or structural changes that interrupt the circulation of substances, their assimilation, the flow of energy, as a result of which this ecosystem is destroyed or its productivity decreases.

Types of negative impact on the land. Land degradation is a set of processes leading to changes in the functions of soils, quantitative and qualitative deterioration of their composition and properties. Agrodepletion; Waterlogging; Erosion.

Land pollution is an anthropogenic activity that leads to a deterioration in the quality of land, characterized by an increase or the appearance of chemicals or radiation levels in comparison with pre-existing values.

Slide 4 from the presentation "Land Protection" to the lessons of law on the topic "Environmental law"

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Environmental law

"Fees for the use of wildlife objects" - License for hunting. Use of objects of aquatic biological resources.

Special licenses. Marine mammal. Various types of fish. Fees for the use of objects of the animal world. The procedure for calculating and paying the fee.

Individual entrepreneur. Collection rates. Objects of the animal world. Fisheries organization.

"Ownership of natural resources" - B municipal property there are land plots: Grounds for the emergence of private property rights. The limiting sizes of isolated water bodies are determined by the land legislation of the Russian Federation.

Objects of property right: State property right: State property right.

"Environmental law" - 1. General characteristics of environmental law. Created by man, but possessing the properties of natural (gardens, forest belts). 2. Environmental rights of citizens. Objects of environmental law The environment (the main object of environmental law) is a set of components of the natural environment: natural and natural-anthropogenic objects, as well as anthropogenic objects.

"Legal protection of landscapes" - Legal protection of landscapes: Types of protected areas: "Protection of natural parks, state.

nature reserves and other protected areas of regional and local significance. " Fed. the law "On the animal world" (1995). A landscape is a specific territory, homogeneous in its origin and development history, indivisible by zonal characteristics, with a single geological base, a single type of relief, a general climate and a uniform combination of hydrothermal conditions, soils and biocenoses.

"Environmental Management" - Fundamentals of Environmental Legislation.

Rights and obligations of citizens. Sources of natural resource law of the Russian Federation. Law. Types of environmental offenses. Permits validity period. Licensing of natural resources.

Subsystems of environmental legislation. The structure of the legislation. Responsibility for environmental offenses.

"Protection of lands" - Legal protection of lands. Land conservation. Land protection. Special responsibilities for land protection. Land protection measures. The role of the state. Littering up the land.

State measures to ensure rational use and protection. Measures to improve and restore the quality of land. Types of negative impact on the land.

In total there are 8 presentations on the topic "Environmental Law"

The impact of the electric power industry on the environment

Energy is one of the sources of adverse impact on the environment and humans. A brief environmental description of the main objects of the electric power industry, on the basis of which its development can be carried out, indicates that they all have one or another negative impact on the environment.

There are practically no objects that do not affect the environment at all.

Energy affects the atmosphere (oxygen consumption, emissions of gases, moisture and particulate matter), the hydrosphere (water consumption, creation of artificial reservoirs, discharges of polluted and heated water, liquid waste) and the lithosphere (consumption of fossil fuels, landscape changes, emissions of toxic substances) ...

The largest number of negative impacts is associated with the development and operation of TPPs.

Thermal power plants that burn fossil fuels adversely affect almost all areas of the environment and expose nature to all the considered types of influences, including the release of radioactive substances in the fly ash of flue gases, which, according to some experts, exceed the volume of radiation emissions from nuclear power plants during normal operation.

The radioactive substances contained in the primary fuel are carried outside the TPP with solid particles (ash) and dispersed with flue gases over a vast territory.

The negative impact of TPPs is aggravated by the fact that their operation must be ensured by constant fuel production (fuel base), accompanied by additional negative impacts on the environment: pollution of the air basin, water and land; consumption of land and water resources, depletion of non-renewable reserves of fuel (natural fossil resources).

Pollution of the natural environment also occurs during the transportation of fuel, both in the form of its direct losses, and as a result of the consumption of energy resources for its transportation, which, on average, across the territory of Russia is carried out at a distance of about 800 km.

The total amount of items for which the negative impact of electric power facilities on the environment is determined turned out to be the largest for TPPs using fossil fuels.

According to such a qualitative assessment of the impact on the environment, nuclear power plants with their fuel base are in second place.

Among the factors of adverse impact of nuclear power plants are such formidable ones as radiation hazard.

Among the large number of air pollutants (more than 200), there are five main ones, which account for 90-95% of the gross emission of harmful substances in various regions of the country.

These include: solid particles (dust, ash); sulfur oxides; nitrogen oxides; carbon oxides; hydrocarbons. In the electric power industry, the first three are the main air pollutants. Electricity emissions reach 1/3 the total harmful substances entering the atmosphere from stationary sources.

The amount of harmful substances emitted into the atmosphere by power plants has significantly decreased over a 10-year period, although electricity generation during the same period increased by 27%.

This decrease was achieved due to changes in the structure of generating capacities, improvement of ash treatment systems, an increase in the share of natural gas used, a decrease in the amount of high-sulfur fuel oil burned at power plants and a decrease in the average sulfur content of coal.

In terms of the hazard level, the main emissions from power plants belong to the III class, i.e.

are not the most dangerous. Along with the main air pollutants discussed above, the flue gases of power plants contain a number of even more harmful, including carcinogenic, substances belonging to the I hazard class. It has been established that significant amounts of carcinogenic substances are formed during the layered combustion of fuel. Combustion of fuel in pulverized coal furnaces reduces the amount of emissions of carcinogenic substances by four orders of magnitude.

Benzapiren and other carcinogenic substances, although present in the combustion products of power plants, are in such small doses that they determine no more than 3-4% of the toxicity of the combustion products of powerful hydroelectric power plants.

The construction of large thermal power plants that burn solid fuel in pulverized coal furnaces or natural gas can significantly improve the carcinogenic situation in settlements by eliminating a large number of small boiler houses, the emissions of which are four orders of magnitude more carcinogenic substances than those of large power plants.

Moreover, these emissions are carried out through low pipes, which do not contribute to their sufficient dispersion.

When fossil fuel burns in power plant boilers, solid and gaseous harmful substances (the so-called "waste") are formed, which are transported as part of the flue gases through the boiler gas ducts into the chimney. Some of the "waste" harmful components are absorbed by other components of the flue gases (for example, sulfur oxides are partially absorbed by ash) in the boiler and in the process of moving along the gas ducts.

At the exit from the chimney, they are captured by special devices, such as ash collectors. Everything that is not absorbed and not captured is thrown into the atmosphere. These uncaptured and unabsorbed pollutants are called “harmful emissions” or simply “emissions”.

A large amount of various harmful substances enters the atmosphere with the flue gases of TPPs.

The largest share of them falls on ash (solid particles), sulfur and nitrogen oxides, the emissions of which are standardized and calculated for the future.

Other emissions (CO and CO2) are not accounted for or controlled, i.e.

Because under normal operating conditions, there is no carbon monoxide in emissions from TPPs. As a result, emissions of carbon monoxide are not counted, as well as emissions of CO2 dioxide, the volume of which is very large. This gas is non-toxic and in the natural cycle serves as a source of oxygen in the process of plant photosynthesis.

Scientists from a number of countries note an increase in the concentration of CO2 in the air, which, apparently, is the result of an increase in its emissions due to the burning of an ever-increasing amount of fossil fuel in the world, including at power plants, as well as a decrease in forest areas due to intensive deforestation in all regions of the Earth, and especially in the basin of the river.

Amazon, whose forests are rightfully considered lungs of the planet... An increase in the concentration of CO2 in the planet's atmosphere can have a global impact on the planet's climate, creating the so-called "greenhouse effect" leading to an increase in average air temperature, melting glaciers, rising sea levels, flooding of vast coastal areas of the Earth and other adverse effects.

When comparing environmental options for the development of the electric power industry, it should be borne in mind that, all other things being equal, sources of electricity that burn organic fuels and emit large amounts of CO2 have a certain disadvantage compared to power plants that do not fundamentally affect the creation of the "greenhouse effect".

These include primarily hydroelectric power plants, as well as nuclear power plants and power plants using alternative sources.

Talking about the impact on temperature conditions environment, it seems appropriate to dwell on thermal imbalances as a result of direct heat emissions associated with the operation of power plants.

Almost all thermal energy released when using fuel (both organic and nuclear) goes to replenish the thermal balance of the planet and, naturally, the balance of the local area in which the power plant is located.

When fossil fuel is burned, the environment additionally receives the thermal energy that has been accumulated in it for millions of years of the Earth's existence.

The additional supply of heat to the environment is primarily due to the imperfection of the process of converting thermal energy into electrical energy (the conversion efficiency for conventional thermal power plants is at the level of 35%, and for nuclear power plants it is 30%). There are heat losses in electrical networks (8-10%), losses in the process of converting electricity into mechanical, thermal energy, etc.

When comparing the impact of various sources of electricity on the environment, it is necessary to take into account only the increase in heat in the total heat balance of the Earth or region, which is associated with different conditions for the use of primary energy resources.

In this respect, the cleanest sources are hydroelectric power plants, which practically do not affect the thermal balance of the Earth.

They, in fact, make it possible to use only that renewable part of the solar energy that is constantly supplied to the Earth and forms its natural heat balance.

When creating hydroelectric power plants, a significant part of potential energy the watercourse is converted into electrical energy, which is useful in the national economy.

Coefficient useful action The hydroelectric power station is high and is at the level of 90-95%.

To produce the same amount of electricity, a thermal power plant requires the use of non-renewable energy stored in fuel, which, to the extent of its scale, disturbs the thermal balance of the planet.

The heat balance of the nuclear power plant is even worse.

The useable energy of modern nuclear power plants is only 1/3 of the energy released as a result of nuclear reactions.

The NPP power unit with a capacity of 1 million kW has a thermal capacity of 3 million kW. Accordingly, with the development of nuclear power plants, the amount of heat input to the Earth's balance and concentrated in the heat balance of the area where the nuclear power plant is located increases.

A huge amount of waste heat energy from TPPs and NPPs is a potential resource for its useful use.

There are currently no reliable methods for assessing the real contribution of heat emissions from TPPs and NPPs to global climate warming on Earth.

Therefore, when comparing the options for the development of the electric power industry, the contribution of power plants to the violation of the thermal balance of the Earth can be taken into account only qualitatively, bearing in mind that only hydroelectric power plants are practically clean in this respect, and from TPPs and nuclear power plants, preference for this indicator should be given to TPPs using organic fuels.

Hydroelectric power plants have the least impacts among traditional sources of electricity.

A great advantage of hydroelectric power plants is also that their impact is limited to local areas of reservoirs and that they use only renewable energy from the watercourse, do not need fuel bases and fuel transportation, and do not consume non-renewable minerals.

Among the adverse impacts of hydroelectric power plants, the main one is the flooding of vast territories, which determines the ecological face of the hydroelectric power plant.

The number of negative environmental impacts of unconventional sources of electricity is generally small, with the exception of geothermal power plants.

The increase in capacity and electricity generation required to ensure an increase in consumer demand for electricity creates the preconditions for increasing the negative impact of the electric power industry on the environment.

Additional impacts can be expressed in the withdrawal of land and water resources, pollution of land, water and atmospheric air.

In this regard, one of the most important problems of the ecological optimization of the development of the electric power industry is the comprehensive reduction of these impacts using various environmental protection measures.

Among the environmental protection measures in the electric power industry, two fundamentally different groups can be distinguished.

The first of them includes technical measures carried out at electric power facilities and contributing to the reduction of harmful emissions and discharges at them, reducing the concentration of harmful substances, as well as resource conservation, utilization of industrial waste, etc.

The second group of environmental protection measures can include those that reduce the negative impact on the environment by optimizing the fuel and energy balance of the electric power industry, optimizing the structure and location of power plants.

The possibilities of the first group of environmental protection measures are determined by technical progress in power engineering, the quality of the development of design solutions for power facilities, the completeness of accounting in the design of environmental protection requirements, and the economic and social acceptability of the proposed solutions.

The activities of the second group are studied and applied taking into account the fact that the activities of the first group are fully implemented at the facilities, i.e.

the activities of the second group do not replace, but complement the complex of activities of the first group. The possibilities of the second group of environmental protection measures in structural optimization are determined by the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the fuel and energy resources of the region under consideration, a set of alternative sources that can be used to cover the increase in electricity consumption (HPP, NPP, GRES, etc.), their location, environmental and economic characteristics.

The conditions for optimizing the development and placement of electric power facilities can be significantly influenced by the state of the environment in the region, including the availability of land and water resources, the level of background environmental pollution.

Obviously, in the case of an increased level of environmental pollution, conditions may arise under which the placement of a power plant here without violating sanitary standards will be impossible even with the use of all available measures of the first group. In this case, the removal of the power plant to another, more environmentally friendly area, or a change in the type of fuel or the type of power plant can be a radical means of protecting nature in this area.

At the same time, it is important to emphasize that in any options for the development and placement of power plants, with any set of environmental protection measures, it is mandatory to ensure the norms of environmental protection and human safety.

It follows from the foregoing that the implementation of systemic measures largely depends on the specific features of the region under consideration, which in each case should be studied individually.